A2 cellular structure of organisms as proof of their relationship, the unity of living nature. What factors indicate the unity of the organic world? Identification of kinship based on the biogenetic law
The world of organic beings, as well as inorganic substances, is material. Organic life is very closely related to the inorganic world.
Evolution has been working for a long time on the diversity of forms of the living world, moving from simple to complex. Let's figure out what is the community and unity of the living shell of the Earth? What indicates the unity of origin of the organic world?
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Factors of unity
There are several factors that serve as an evidence base community and unity of origin of all living beings:
- Similar elemental chemical composition;
- All living organisms have a cellular discrete structure;
- Basic physiological and biochemical processes proceed in a similar way;
- Identification of kinship based on embryonic development;
- Paleontology;
Let's look at the factors presented above in a little more detail.
Similar chemical composition of organic bodies
All living organisms, upon closer examination, have approximately identical chemical elemental composition. Life is defined as a way of existence of protein bodies, calling it carbon, since carbon molecules are always present in the composition of any organic substance. Any living creature contains water, organic compounds (proteins, fats, carbohydrates), as well as inorganic salts.
Among the most important elements contained in protoplasm are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron. We call these components macronutrients. Among the microelements in living beings, we distinguish copper, zinc, boron, molybdenum, manganese, chlorine, sodium, silicon, strontium, aluminum, fluorine, bromine.
Every living organism contains water. Water is the most important compound in living cells. It is a solution where basic chemical processes take place, serves as a transport network for dissolved substances, and regulates temperature.
Different living organisms contain different amounts of water:
- Algae - up to 98%;
- Tree leaves - 50−97%;
- Dry seeds - 5−9%;
- Jellyfish - 95%;
- Animal and human blood - 79%;
- Human heart - 70%.
In the 17th century R. Hooke examined the structure of a plant cell under a microscope in the bark of a cork oak tree. Since this discovery, the cells have been found in various biological samples. In 1838, Matthias Jakob Schleiden (a German botanist) wrote that he had studied many different plant forms, all of which were composed of cells. The cell is a universal form of life. An entire living organism grows from one cell.
In 1839, another scientist, Theodor Schwann, popularized and deepened his colleague's idea. He studied animal tissues and came to the conclusion that animals also consist of cells. Each cell has a membrane that separates it from the external aggressive environment of the outside world.
This is how the Schleiden-Schwann theory about the unity of the cellular structure of the organic world was born. Gradually, scientists came to the conclusion that gametes (egg and sperm) are also cells. A stable concept of the unity of life was formed. The single cellular structure of organisms of all kingdoms testifies to the unity of origin of organic life.
Physiology and biochemistry
Research by physiologists and biochemists confirms that the same groups of chemical components are present in the bodies of completely different living beings. All physiological biochemical processes in different groups of living organisms proceed similarly, regardless of how far they are from each other in genealogical relationship.
The discoverer of metabolic processes was the English scientist Arthur Harden.
He obtained an enzyme extract from yeast cells and noted that it decomposes sugars and releases carbon dioxide. The process slowed down over time. Harden assumed that this was due to the consumption of the enzyme. The experiment revealed that there is an accumulation of intermediate metabolic products. He added sodium phosphate, and the process resumed, with organic phosphate appearing in the composition.
Further, biochemistry developed at an explosive pace. Various experiments have confirmed that the same processes occur in the same way in different representatives of living beings. This is indicative of the research of the English biochemist H. A. Krebs. He discovered the main stages of the decomposition of lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water. This cascade of reactions is the same in different animal species. It is called the Krebs cycle.
Identification of kinship based on the biogenetic law
This pattern is a confirmation of the unity of the animal kingdom. Animals in the early stages of ontogenesis have developmental similarities. Based on these observations, E. Haeckel and F. Müller derived the basic biogenetic law, which states that ontogeny is a quick and brief repetition of phylogeny. This formulation is valid only for the early stages of development.
The idea was deepened by the Russian scientist Karl Maksimovich Baer. It was he who discovered the similarity of animal embryos in the early stages of development. This observation is called the law of germline similarity. Many have probably seen a picture with fish, salamanders, turtles, rats and humans. In the earliest stages, the embryos are remarkably similar. This cannot but be evidence that all animals have one common ancestor and develop according to a similar scenario.
It would be useful to mention here vestigial organs and atavisms:
Paleontology
Paleontology is a science, studying extinct forms of living beings, their structure, way of life based on the remains. Paleontology divides its working material conventionally into leading fossils and living fossils. Guidelines are the remains of animals and plants that are found in certain geological layers. Living fossils are living organisms that have survived virtually unchanged since prehistoric times - gingko, sequoia, coelacanth, the cephalopod nautilus and some other animals and plants.
From the evidence presented, it becomes absolutely obvious that there is a clear relationship between living and inanimate nature on the planet. Many factors indicate that all the diversity of living nature on our planet came from a small group of ancient ancestors. Amazing discoveries await us ahead, which will allow us to understand the world even better.
Option 1
What indicates the relatedness of all species of plants and animals?
a) their participation in the cycle of substances; b) the relationship between organisms and the environment;
c) cellular structure of organisms; d) adaptability of organisms to their environment.
2. Which theory generalized knowledge about the similarity of the structure and functions of cells
plants, animals, humans, bacteria?
a) evolution; b) cellular; c) the origin of a person;
d) individual development of organisms.
3. What functions does the cytoplasm perform in a cell?
a) ensures interaction between the nucleus and organelles;
b) gives the cell shape; c) ensures interaction between the nucleus and organelles;
d) protects the contents of the cell from environmental influences.
4. The process of oxidation of organic substances to carbon dioxide and water with the release
energy occurs in
a) chloroplasts; b) mitochondria; c) lysosomes; d) Golgi complex.
5. Photosynthesis occurs in the cells of organisms that have
a) core; b) mitochondria; c) chloroplasts; d) chromosomes.
6. In the process of energy metabolism, organic substances
a) split; b) are formed; c) transported; d) turn into polymers.
7. Chromosomes are considered carriers of hereditary information, since they contain
are located
a) protein molecules; b) polysaccharides; c) genes; d) enzymes.
8. The formation of enzymes occurs in the process
a) breathing; b) fermentation; c) plastic exchange; d) energy metabolism.
Part 2.
IN 1. What function does the plasma membrane perform in a cell?
1) delimits the contents of the cell; 2) participates in the biosynthesis of proteins;
3) carries out the entry of substances into the cell;
4) participates in the process of oxidation of substances;
5) helps accelerate chemical reactions in the cell;
6) ensures the removal of a number of substances from the cell.
AT 2. What structures in eukaryotes contain DNA molecules?
1) core; 2) lysosomes; 3) Golgi complex; 4) chloroplasts; 5) ribosomes;
6) mitochondria.
AT 3.
which they are characteristic of.
Cell structure and function Organoid
A) breakdown of complex organic substances into 1) lysosome
less complex 2) mitochondria
B) oxidation of organic substances to carbon dioxide and water
B) has many cristae
D) delimited from the cytoplasm by one membrane
D) when proteins, fats and carbohydrates are broken down, it is released
energy that is dissipated as heat.
AT 4. Establish a correspondence between the structure or function of a cell and the organism in its composition
which she enters.
Cell structure and functions Organism
A) does not have a dense shell 1) vegetable
B) contains chloroplasts 2) animal
C) creates organic substances from inorganic ones
D) converts light energy into chemical energy
D) absorbs organic substances, surrounding them with a plasma membrane
E) cannot use light energy for synthesis
organic substances.
Test "Cellular level"
Option 2
Part 1. Choose one correct answer out of four.
All organisms consist of cells that are similar in structure and chemical composition. This indicates their
a) evolution; b) relationship; c) individual development; d) heredity.
2. The similarity of metabolism in the cells of organisms of all kingdoms of living nature is
one of the proofs
a) the unity of the organic world, their kinship;
b) the unity of living and inanimate nature; c) evolution of the organic world;
d) the origin of highly organized organisms from simply organized ones.
3. Chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell are located in
a) core; b) cytoplasm; c) Golgi complex; d) endoplasmic reticulum.
4. Which cell organelle has numerous outgrowths - cristae on the inner
membrane?
a) chloroplast; b) Golgi complex; c) endoplasmic reticulum; d) mitochondria.
5. During the process of photosynthesis occurs
a) absorption of oxygen by the plant; b) release of carbon dioxide by cells;
c) the formation of organic substances from inorganic ones;
d) oxidation of organic substances.
6. The synthesis of ATP molecules occurs in the process
a) energy metabolism; b) plastic exchange;
c) cell division; d) protein biosynthesis.
7. Genes are sections of a molecule
a) protein; b) polysaccharide; c) DNA; d) ATP.
8. Formation of organic substances from inorganic ones using energy
light is a feature of plastic metabolism in
a) mushrooms; b) animals; c) plants; d) saprotrophic bacteria.
Part 2.
Choose three correct answers out of six.
IN 1. What is the structure and function of mitochondria?
1) participate in the breakdown of biopolymers into monomers;
2) use the energy of sunlight in reactions of synthesis of substances;
3) promote the movement of substances in the cell;
4) have cristae on which enzymes are located;
5) participate in the oxidation of organic substances to carbon dioxide and water;
6) have DNA molecules.
AT 2. What function does the nucleus perform in a cell?
1) carries out the entry of substances into the cell; 2) chromosomes are localized in it;
3) participates in the synthesis of mRNA molecules; 4) DNA molecules are synthesized;
5) participates in the process of photosynthesis; 6) participates in the synthesis of ATP molecules.
AT 3. Establish a correspondence between the structure or function of a cell and an organelle, for
which they are characteristic of.
Cell structure and function Cell part
A) provides communication between plant cells 1) nucleus
B) regulates vital processes in the cell 2) cytoplasm
B) constitutes the internal environment of the cell
D) provides communication between cell organelles
D) serves as the location of organelles
AT 4. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of metabolism and its type.
Characteristics of metabolism Type of metabolism
A) carries out the synthesis of organic substances 1) plastic
B) reactions occur using energy 2) energy
B) accompanied by energy storage
D) the breakdown of organic substances occurs
D) building material is formed in the cell.
A. A group of cells that perform different functions
B. A group of cells that form tissues that perform various functions
B. A group of cells that form tissues and organs that perform only one specific function
D. Coordinated interaction of cells, tissues and organs that make up this organism
2. Population is:
A. Individuals of the same species
B. Individuals of the same species living in the same territory
B. All living organisms living in the same area
D. Individuals of one species living in one territory and partially or completely isolated from individuals of other similar groups
3. The shell of the earth populated by living organisms is:
A. Atmosphere
B. Lithosphere
B. Biosphere
G. Biocenosis
4. The taxonomy is based on:
A. Study of the diversity of living organisms
B. Study of the structure of living organisms
B. Distribution of living organisms into groups based on similarity and relatedness
D. Study of fossil species of living organisms
5. The founder of taxonomy is:
A. Carl Linnaeus
B. Charles Darwin
V. Aristotle
G. Theophrastus
6. Select the correct sequence of systematic categories.
A. Species, family, genus, order, class, type, subtype, kingdom
B. Species, genus, family, order, class, subtype, type, subkingdom, kingdom
B. Genus, species, family, class, order, type, subtype, kingdom
G. Species, subspecies, genus, family, order, class, subtype, type, subkingdom, kingdom
7. Method of movement of bacteria:
A. With the help of flagella
B. “Reactive” - throwing out mucus
B. Using wings
D. All statements are true
8. Bacterial spores are...
A. Sex cell
B. Propagation form
B. Form for the survival of bacteria in adverse conditions
D. Name of bacteria
9. To obtain energy, bacteria use:
A. Organic compounds
B. Inorganic compounds
B. Sunlight
D. All statements are true
10. Science studies mushrooms:
A. Mycology
B. Ecology
B. Microbiology
G. Biology
11. Mushrooms reproduce:
A. Vegetatively
B. Disputes
B. Seeds
G. Sexually
12. In mushrooms, spores develop in:
A. Gifakh
B. sporangia
B. Kidneys
G. Mykorize
13. Mycorrhiza is:
A. Name of the mushroom
B. Mushroom root
B. A variety of mycelium
G. Dispute
14. The survival of the fungus in unfavorable conditions is ensured by:
A. The supply of nutrients is deposited in the cells of the thickened parts of the mycelium
B. A spore is formed
B. A large amount of water is stored
D. Metabolic processes slow down
15. The class Basidiomycetes includes:
A. Russula
B. Tinder
B. Zvezdovik
G. Potato mushroom
16. What fungus affects cereal crops and can cause human poisoning if it gets into flour?
A. Ergot
B. Penicill
B. Late blight
G. Yeast
17. Forms mold on food products:
A. Mukor
B. Penicill
B. Ergot
G. Phytophthora
18. Lichens are organisms that feed on:
A. Heterotrophic
B. Autotrophic
B. Autoheterotrophic
G. Chemotrophic
19. In the body of a lichen algae there are:
A. Along the lower cortical layer
B. At the core
B. Between the core and the lower cortex
D. Between the core and the upper cortical layer
All living organisms are made up of cells. All eukaryotic cells have a similar set of organelles, regulate metabolism in a similar way, store and consume energy, and use the genetic code for protein synthesis in a similar way as prokaryotes. In eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the cell membrane functions in a fundamentally similar way. The common characteristics of the cells indicate the unity of their origin.
1. The structure of the cell of fungi and plants. Signs of similarity in the structure of these cells: the presence of a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi complex, etc. Signs of similarity are proof of the relationship of plants and fungi. Differences: only plant cells have a hard shell of fiber, plastids, vacuoles with cell sap.
2. Functions of cellular structures. Functions of the shell and cell membrane: protection of the cell, the entry of certain substances into it from the environment and the release of others. The shell performs the function of a skeleton (the permanent shape of the cell). The location of the cytoplasm is between the cell membrane and the nucleus, and in the cytoplasm of all organelles of the cell. Functions of the cytoplasm: connection between the nucleus and the organelles of the cell, the implementation of all processes of cellular metabolism (except for the synthesis of nucleic acids), the location in the nucleus of chromosomes, which store hereditary information about the characteristics of the body, the transfer of chromosomes from parents to offspring as a result of cell division. The role of the nucleus in controlling cell protein synthesis and all physiological processes. Oxidation of organic substances in mitochondria with oxygen releasing energy. Synthesis of protein molecules in ribosomes. The presence of chloroplasts (plastids) in plant cells, the formation of organic substances in them from inorganic ones using solar energy (photosynthesis).
A plant cell contains all the organelles characteristic of an animal cell: nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus. At the same time, it has significant structural features. A plant cell differs from an animal cell in the following features: a strong cell wall of considerable thickness; special organelles - plastids, in which the primary synthesis of organic substances from mineral substances occurs due to light energy; a developed network of vacuoles, which largely determine the osmotic properties of cells.
A plant cell, like a fungal cell, is surrounded by a cytoplasmic membrane, but in addition it is limited by a thick cell wall consisting of cellulose, which animals do not have. The cell wall has pores through which the endoplasmic reticulum channels of neighboring cells communicate with each other.
The predominance of synthetic processes over processes of energy release is one of the most characteristic features of the metabolism of plant organisms. The primary synthesis of carbohydrates from inorganic substances occurs in plastids. There are three types of plastids: 1) leucoplasts - colorless plastids in which starch is synthesized from monosaccharides and disaccharides (there are leucoplasts that store proteins and fats); 2) chloroplasts, including the pigment chlorophyll, where photosynthesis occurs; 3) chromoplasts containing various pigments that determine the bright color of flowers and fruits.
Plastids can transform into each other. They contain DNA and RNA and reproduce by fission in two. Vacuoles develop from cisterns of the endoplasmic reticulum, contain dissolved proteins, carbohydrates, low molecular weight synthesis products, vitamins, various salts and are surrounded by a membrane. Osmotic pressure created by substances dissolved in the vacuolar sap causes water to enter the cell and creates turgor - tension in the cell wall. Turgor and thick elastic cell membranes determine the strength of plants to static and dynamic loads.
Fungal cells have a cell wall made of chitin. The reserve nutrient is most often the polysaccharide glycogen (as in animals). Mushrooms do not contain chlorophyll.
Mushrooms, unlike plants, need ready-made organic compounds (like animals), that is, according to the method of nutrition, they are heterotrophs; They are characterized by an osmotrophic type of nutrition. Three types of heterotrophic nutrition are possible for fungi:
2. Fungi - saprophytes feed on organic substances of dead organisms.
3. Fungi - symbionts receive organic substances from higher plants, giving them in return an aqueous solution of mineral salts, that is, acting as root hairs.
Mushrooms (like plants) grow throughout their lives.
One of the main ecological concepts is habitat. Under habitat understand the complex of environmental conditions affecting the body. The concept of habitat includes elements that directly or indirectly affect the body - they are called environmental factors. There are three groups of environmental factors: abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic. These factors influence the body in various directions: they lead to adaptive changes, limit the spread of organisms in the environment, and indicate changes in other environmental factors.
TO abiotic factors include factors of inanimate nature: light, temperature, humidity, chemical composition of water and soil, atmosphere, etc.
. sunlight- the main source of energy for living organisms. The biological effect of sunlight depends on its characteristics: spectral composition, intensity, daily and seasonal frequency.
Ultraviolet part spectrum has high photochemical activity: in the body of animals it participates in the synthesis of vitamin D, these rays are perceived by the visual organs of insects.
The visible part of the spectrum provides (red and blue rays) the process of photosynthesis and the bright color of flowers (attracting pollinators). In animals, visible light is involved in spatial orientation.
Infrared rays- source of thermal energy. Warmth is important for thermoregulation of cold-blooded animals (invertebrates and lower vertebrates). In plants, infrared radiation increases transpiration, which promotes the absorption of carbon dioxide and the movement of water throughout the plant body.
Plants and animals respond to the relationship between the length of periods of light and darkness during a day or season. This phenomenon is called photoperiodism.
Photoperiodism regulates the daily and seasonal rhythms of life of organisms, and is also a climatic factor that determines the life cycles of many species.
In plants, photoperiodism manifests itself in the synchronization of the period of flowering and fruit ripening with the period of the most active photosynthesis; in animals - in the coincidence of the breeding season with an abundance of food, in the migrations of birds, the change of coat in mammals, hibernation, changes in behavior, etc.
Temperature directly affects the rate of biochemical reactions in the bodies of living organisms, which occur within certain limits. The temperature limits in which organisms usually live range from 0 to 50°C. But some bacteria and algae can live in hot springs at temperatures of 85-87°C. High temperatures (up to 80°C) are tolerated by some unicellular soil algae, crustose lichens, and plant seeds. There are animals and plants that can tolerate exposure to very low temperatures - until they freeze completely.
Most animals are cold-blooded (poikilothermic) organisms- their body temperature depends on the ambient temperature. These are all types of invertebrate animals and a significant part of vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles).
Birds and mammals - warm-blooded (homeothermic) animals. Their body temperature is relatively constant and largely depends on the metabolism of the body itself. These animals also develop adaptations that allow them to retain body heat (hair, dense plumage, a thick layer of subcutaneous adipose tissue, etc.).
Over most of the Earth's territory, temperature has clearly defined daily and seasonal fluctuations, which determines certain biological rhythms of organisms. The temperature factor also affects the vertical zonation of fauna and flora.
Water- the main component of the cytoplasm of cells, is one of the most important factors influencing the distribution of terrestrial living organisms. Lack of water leads to a number of adaptations in plants and animals.
Drought-resistant plants have a deep root system, smaller cells, and an increased concentration of cell sap. Water evaporation is reduced as a result of leaf reduction, the formation of a thick cuticle or waxy coating, etc. Many plants can absorb moisture from the air (lichens, epiphytes, cacti). A number of plants have a very short growing season (as long as there is moisture in the soil) - tulips, feather grass, etc. During dry times, they remain dormant in the form of underground shoots - bulbs or rhizomes.
In terrestrial arthropods, dense covers are formed that prevent evaporation, the metabolism is modified - insoluble products are released (uric acid, guanine). Many inhabitants of deserts and steppes (turtles, snakes) hibernate during periods of drought. A number of animals (insects, camels) use metabolic water, which is produced during the breakdown of fat, for their life. Many animal species make up for the lack of water by absorbing it when drinking or eating (amphibians, birds, mammals).
Using knowledge about nutritional standards and human energy expenditure (the combination of foods of plant and animal origin, norms and diet, etc.), explain why people who eat a lot of carbohydrates quickly gain weight.
Water, salt, protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolisms continuously occur in the human body. Energy reserves continuously decrease during the life of the body and are replenished through food. The ratio of the amount of energy supplied by food and the energy expended by the body is called energy balance. The amount of food consumed must correspond to a person’s energy expenditure. To draw up nutritional standards, it is necessary to take into account the energy reserves in nutrients and their energy value. The human body is not able to synthesize vitamins and must receive them daily from food.
The German scientist Max Rubner established an important pattern. Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are interchangeable in energy terms. Thus, 1 g of carbohydrates or 1 g of proteins during oxidation gives 17.17 kJ, 1 g of fat - 38.97 kJ. This means that in order to correctly create a diet, you need to know how many kilojoules were spent and how much food you need to eat to compensate for the energy expended, i.e. you need to know a person’s energy expenditure and the energy intensity (calorie content) of food. The last value shows how much energy can be released during its oxidation.
Research has shown that when choosing the optimal diet, it is important to take into account not only caloric content, but also the chemical components of food. Plant protein, for example, does not contain some amino acids that humans need, or contains them in insufficient quantities. Therefore, in order to get everything you need, you need to eat much more food than required. In animal food, the amino acid composition of proteins corresponds to the needs of the human body, but animal fats are poor in essential fatty acids. They are found in vegetable oil. This means that it is necessary to monitor the correct ratio of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in the daily diet and take into account their characteristics in food products of various origins.
Different food products contain different amounts of vitamins, inorganic and ballast substances. Thus, apples, meat, liver, pomegranates contain a lot of iron salts, cottage cheese contains calcium, potatoes are rich in potassium salts, etc. But some substances can be contained in large quantities in foods and not be absorbed in the intestines. For example, carrots contain a lot of carotene (from which vitamin A is formed in our body), but since it dissolves only in fats, carotene is absorbed only from products containing fats (for example, grated carrots with sour cream or butter).
Food must replenish energy costs. This is an indispensable condition for maintaining human health and performance. Nutrition standards have been determined for people of various professions. When compiling them, daily energy consumption and the energy value of nutritious foods are taken into account (Table 2).
If a person is engaged in heavy physical labor, his food should contain a lot of carbohydrates. When calculating the daily ration, the age of people and climatic conditions are also taken into account.
The nutrients required by humans are well understood, and artificial diets could be formulated containing only the substances required by the body. But this would most likely have dire consequences, since the work of the gastrointestinal tract is impossible without ballast substances. Such artificial mixtures would not move well through the digestive tract and would be poorly absorbed. That's why nutritionists recommend eating a variety of foods, and not limiting yourself to some kind of diet, but be sure to consume energy.
There are developed approximate norms of a person’s daily need for nutrients. Using this table, compiled by nutritionists, you can calculate the daily diet of a person of any profession.
Excess carbohydrates in the human body are converted into fats. Excess fat is stored in reserve, increasing body weight.
