The Norman conquest of England and its results. Conquest of England by the Normans Norman Conquest of England personalities and their actions

2000 BC	Iberians in Britain
OK. 700-200 BC	Migration of the Celts (Gaels, Brents, Belgaes)
55-54 BC	Caesar's campaigns in Britain
	Conquest of Britain by the Romans
	Roman legions leave Britain
	Anglo-Saxon conquest
	The beginning of the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons
	King Ine of Wessex
	King Offa of Mercia
The end of the VIII-IX centuries.	Norman (Danish) raids
	Unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms under Wessex
2nd half 9th century	Wars with the Danes
	Alfred the Great
	Peace of Wedmore (with the Danes)
	Subordination to Areas of Danish Law
	Ethelred
	Canute the Great. Danish conquest of England
	Strife. End of Danish rule
	Edward the Confessor
	Norman conquest of England
	Rebellion in the North of England
	"Book of the Last Judgment"
	Wilhelm the Red

	Baronial Troubles
	Henry II Plantagenet
	Plantagenet Dynasty
	Richard the Lionheart
	Rise of William Longbeard in London
	John the Landless
	Pope Innocent III
	War with France
	Battle of Buvin
	"Magna Carta"
	Henry III
	Civil War
	Convening of the first parliament

	The struggle for control of Scotland
	Conflict with the barons
	Edward II
	Edward III
	John Unclef
	English defeat in Scotland
	Hundred Years' War with France
	Battle of Sluys
	Battle of Crecy
	Capture of Calais
	"Black Death"
	"Ordinance on Workers and Servants"
	Battle of Poitiers
	Peasant revolt of the Jacquerie in France
	Richard II
	Wat Tyler's Rebellion
	Henry IV Lancaster
	Statute “On the burning of heretics”
	John Oldcastle Movement
	Henry V Lancaster
	Treaty of Troyes
	Henry VI Lancaster
	Burning of Joan of Arc
	The Rise of Jack Cad
	Wars of the Roses
	Battle of St. Albans
	Edward IV of York

	Richard III
	Battle of Bosworth
	Henry VII Tudor
	Henry VIII Tudor
	The beginning of the reformation. "Act of Supremacy".
	Execution of Thomas More
	"Pilgrimage of Grace"
	Edward VI Tudor
	The Rebellion of Robert Ket
	Mary Tudor
	Wyeth's Rebellion
	Elizabeth I Tudor
	William Shakespeare
	Uprising in the North
	Anglo-Spanish War
	Execution of Mary Stuart
	The defeat of the "invincible Armada"
	Rebellion in Ireland
	Essex Conspiracy and Execution

Chapter IV. The Norman Conquest of England and its consequences

V. V. Shtokmar. History of England in the Middle Ages

Norman Conquest

Normandy was in the middle of the 11th century. a country that had reached the full flowering of feudal relations. This was reflected primarily in its military superiority: the Duke was the head of the heavily armed knightly cavalry of his vassals, and the large incomes received by the sovereign of Normandy from his possessions, and in particular from the cities, allowed him to have his own excellent military detachments. The duchy had better internal organization than England and a strong central government, which controlled both the feudal lords and the church. Hearing about the death of Edward the Confessor, William sent envoys to Harold in England demanding a vassal oath and at the same time declared everywhere that Harold was a usurper and an oathbreaker. William appealed to Pope Alexander II, accusing Harold of breaking his oath and asking the pope to bless William's invasion of England. 50-60s of the 11th century. - an era of great change in the history of the Catholic Church in Western Europe. The Clunians, supporters of the reform, achieved a victory that marked the internal strengthening of the church (the ban on simony - receiving church positions from secular sovereigns, the celibacy of the clergy, the election of the pope by the college of cardinals). This victory meant both the assertion of the independence of the papacy from secular power and the beginning of the struggle of the popes to strengthen their political influence in Europe, and ultimately for the subordination of secular sovereigns to the authority of the papal throne. In this situation, the Pope, believing that the English Church needed reform, sent William a consecrated banner, thereby authorizing a campaign against England. Wilhelm began to prepare for the invasion. Since William could not demand military service from his vassals outside Normandy, he called the barons to a council to obtain their consent to the campaign. In addition, the Duke began recruiting volunteers outside of Normandy. He built many transport ships, collected weapons and food. William's first assistant was Seneschal William fitz Osbern, whose brother had estates in England. Knights flocked to William's camp from everywhere. In addition to the Normans, there were knights from Brittany, Flanders, Picardy, Artois, etc. The number of William's troops is difficult to establish. Historians believe that Normandy could field 1,200 knights, and the rest of France less. Such a unique source of the time as the Bayeux carpet provides many images relating to the preparation of the campaign and the events associated with the conquest. According to this source, the largest vessels were open barques with one square sail, capable of accommodating about 12 horses. Most of the ships depicted were smaller. Historians believe that there were no more than seven hundred ships in total and that they could transport about 5 thousand people (according to Delbrück’s calculations, about 7 thousand people). Only 2 thousand warriors were heavily armed knights with trained horses (1,200 people from Normandy and 800 people from other regions). The remaining 3 thousand people are infantry, archers and ship crews. Crossing the English Channel was risky and new. However, Wilhelm managed to persuade the barons. While this preparation was underway, the English king Harold, knowing full well about everything that was happening in Normandy, gathered people and ships in the south of England. Suddenly and completely unexpectedly for him, northern England, by agreement with William, was attacked by the Norwegian king Harald Hardroda and Tosti, expelled from England. On September 20 they entered the Humber Bay with a large fleet. The English king had to hurry, leaving everything, north to York. In a desperate battle at Stamford Bridge, Harold defeated the English attackers. The Norwegian king and Tosti were killed (September 25, 1066). But on September 28, the army of William, Duke of Normandy, landed in the south of England in Pevensey. Harold, having learned about the enemy's landing, hurried south. His troops were weakened both as a result of the battle with the Norwegians and as a result of the campaign. When Harold entered London on October 6, the southern militia had not yet been assembled, and the bulk of Harold's army consisted of the Huskerls, nobles and peasants of the southeast. These were foot troops. Harold went to meet the conquerors and began to expect the enemy army, stopping 10 kilometers from Hastings. The meeting took place on October 14, 1066. Two armies, Anglo-Saxon and Norman (French in composition and language), represented, as it were, two stages in the development of military art, personifying the difference in the socio-political system of Normandy and England. The Anglo-Saxon army was mainly a peasant foot militia, armed with clubs and, at best, battle axes. Huskerls and earls had swords, Danish battle axes and shields, but also fought on foot. Harold had neither cavalry nor archers. The Norman army is an excellent heavily armed knightly cavalry. Knights fought from the saddle. There were also squads of archers. The defeat of the Anglo-Saxon army was a foregone conclusion. Harold and many tens and earls died in the battle. The defeat was complete and final. Wilhelm was in no hurry to take further action; only five days later he went to Dover and Canterbury. Meanwhile, in London, the prelates announced that Edgar Etheling was the heir to the throne of the Anglo-Saxon, but the northern counts did not support him. London townspeople decided not to resist William, apparently fearing the defeat of the city. Earls, lords, bishops and sheriffs vied with each other to reconcile with William and declare their loyalty. In general, southern England did not offer significant resistance to the conquerors. On Christmas Day 1066, William (1066-1087) was anointed king at Westminster. The ceremony took place in a peculiar situation: William’s retinue, following a false rumor of betrayal, set fire to the houses around the cathedral and began beating everyone who came to hand; everyone except William and the priests ran out of the church, and a fight ensued. But the ceremony was still completed properly. Wanting to gain the support of the population, William promised to “observe the good laws of Edward.” However, the robberies and violence of the Norman barons continued for quite a long time. In general, by the end of 1068, not only southern but also northern England recognized William. In order to guarantee the obedience of the citizens of London, the construction of a royal fortress, the Tower, began directly next to its city wall. In 1069, the northern regions of England rebelled against the new king, and William organized a punitive expedition there. As a result, not a single house or a single living person remained in the entire space between York and Durham. The Vale of York turned into a desert, which had to be repopulated already in the 12th century. The last rebellion against William was undertaken by the small landowner Hereward on the Isle of Ely in 1071.

First they got it by will, then they won it in battle

After the Romans left, Britain was conquered by Anglo-Saxon tribes, who formed several barbarian kingdoms. The struggle to strengthen royal power continued for a long time. The English kings waged war against the separatist aspirations of the feudal nobility and with external enemies - Denmark and Normandy. In 1065, the childless king of England died and bequeathed his crown to William, Duke of Normandy, in gratitude for his help in fighting off the Danes.

While the Duke was preparing to go to England, the English chose Harold, the brother of the late queen, as their king. Harold was crowned according to the customs of the time. When William learned of this, he sent envoys to England to remind Harold of his oath. The fact is that during the life of the old king, Harold was captured by William, and the Duke of Normandy held the prisoners until he secured an oath that Harold would help him become king. Now Harold replied that he did not recognize the promise made against his will, and William began to prepare for war.

The Norman Duke gathered significant forces - up to 10 thousand people. All vassals agreed to participate in the campaign; the clergy promised to give money, merchants helped with goods, farmers with food. Not only the Norman feudal lords, but also many French knights, who were counting on an easy victory, gathered on the campaign. Wilhelm offered everyone who was ready to fight on his side a large salary and participation in the division of the spoils. The Norman Duke received a blessing from the Pope for this campaign, and the Pope himself sent the battle banner.

Preparations for the campaign were long and thorough. At the end of August 1066, at the mouth of the Dena River, between the Seine and Orne, 400 large sailing ships and up to a thousand transport ships were gathered, ready to sail; We were just waiting for a fair wind. It took a lot of time - almost a whole month. The army began to grumble. Then the Duke ordered to bring the shrine with the relics of St. Valery. The church service encouraged the army, and the next morning a tailed star appeared in the sky. The warriors took this sign for a happy omen. The Lord Himself is for us! - they shouted. “Lead us to Harold!” In England, having seen the same comet, they expected bloodshed, fires and the enslavement of the country.

The next day, William's troops boarded the ships. The Norman fleet consisted of a large number of small ships loaded with horses, which significantly hampered the actions of the soldiers in defending the ship. King Harold wanted to take advantage of this and attack the Normans at sea. He failed due to the fact that at that time Norwegian Vikings landed in the northern part of England, brought by Harold's brother, who had been expelled from his fatherland.

Then Harold decided to defeat these enemies first and moved his army north. He implemented this plan brilliantly - on September 25 he defeated the Vikings; already three days later, William landed on the coast of England with his archers and a cavalry detachment of knights. Along with the troops were carpenters, blacksmiths and laborers, who began to unload three wooden castles and fortresses, cut down in Normandy.

Duke William was the last to leave and, as soon as he stepped on the ground, he stumbled and fell. The soldiers saw this and were afraid of a bad sign. ‘Why are you surprised? - the Duke was found. “I have embraced this land with my hands and I swear by God’s greatness that it will be ours.” The army took heart and went to Hastings, the nearest town. By order of William, two castles were assembled, all the food was brought there, and then a camp was set up. Small detachments of Normans began to rob the indigenous population, but the duke stopped the outrages and even executed several marauders as a warning to others. He looked at England as his property and did not want violence.

The Norman army did not take any action, only William and a small detachment went on reconnaissance. Thus, he lost the initiative to his opponent. Harold. Having learned about the Norman landing, he gathered forces and moved towards Hastings. The Anglo-Saxon army was weaker: it did not have cavalry. In addition, a significant part of the Saxons were armed with stone axes and did not have reliable means of defense. Harold was advised to devastate the country and retreat to London, but the king did not listen to this advice. He hoped to catch his opponent off guard. However, Wilhelm's advanced patrols notified in time of the enemy's approach.

On October 14, a 15-strong Anglo-Saxon army, according to ancient custom, fortified itself on the hills near Hastings. This place is still called the massacre. They took up a position at a height beyond which there was a forest. The Anglo-Saxons built an earthen rampart along the entire length of the hilly ridge, strengthened it with a palisade and surrounded it with wattle fence. The army, forming a phalanx, bristled with spears and axes. In the rear of the phalanx there remained a height with steep slopes, and in the center there was a hollow that led out into the forest. The Anglo-Saxons were preparing to give a defensive battle.

The Norman army formed in three lines, which made it possible to increase the force of the attack. William's entire army was divided into three parts: the first contained knights and mercenaries; in the second - allied troops (for example, the Bretons); in the third - the Normans led by the Duke himself. Numerous light infantry, armed with bows and large, man-sized crossbows, were positioned in front and on the sides of all three lines. Behind the light infantry stood heavier infantry, protected by iron helmets, chain mail and shields. Behind the infantry was the cavalry, the stronghold of the army. Before the battle, the Duke rode out on a white horse and called on the army: “Fight bravely, kill everyone! If we win, you will be rich. If I conquer the state, it will be for you. I want to take revenge on the British for their treachery, betrayal and insults caused to me..."

At the first stage, archers entered the battle. The Normans were superior to the Anglo-Saxons both in numbers and in the range of their weapons and the art of shooting. Approaching the flight of the arrow, Wilhelm's crossbowmen opened battle, but their arrows hit the palisades without causing any harm to the enemy.

After some time, the Duke gathered the archers and ordered them to repeat the attack, this time shooting with a canopy so that the arrows would wound the Anglo-Saxons as they fell from above. This ploy cost the British many wounded. Harold lost an eye, but did not leave the battlefield and continued to command the army. The Norman infantry and cavalry rushed into the attack shouting: “Mother of God! Help us, help us!” But this attack was repulsed. The force of the infantry's blow was weakened by the fact that it had to climb the slope. Confusion began in William's army, and rumors spread that the duke had been killed. Then he, baring his head, galloped towards the fugitives shouting: “I’m here! I'm healthy and safe! With God's help, we will win!”

Once again the knights launched an assault and returned defeated. Then William decided to take the enemy by cunning: he ordered the knights to attack the Anglo-Saxons, and then feign flight in order to lure the enemy into an open field. Wilhelm's maneuver was a success. The Anglo-Saxons rushed after the retreating Normans and were scattered across the field, where they were met by the swords and stakes of stopped enemies. And then the Norman cavalry arrived.

The Aiglo-Saxons turned back - but there they were ambushed by William. In the cramped space, the Saxons, armed with axes, could not swing. With great effort they made their way to their camp, but it was already occupied by the Normans. As night fell, all the Anglo-Saxons scattered across the fields and were exterminated one by one the next day. King Harold was killed in this battle. Britain found itself in the hands of the Normans.

The victory at Hastings sealed the fate of England. William surrounded London and threatened to starve its inhabitants. His nephew, who was elected king instead of Harold, was the first to talk about surrendering the capital. He himself appeared at the Norman camp and took the oath of allegiance to William. The latter divided England, in addition to his inheritance, into 700 large and 60 small plots, which he gave to the Norman barons and ordinary soldiers, obliging them to perform military service and pay taxes for this. This distribution of lands contributed to the emergence of a rich and proud English nobility. For a long time, small detachments of Anglo-Saxons attacked Norman castles, trying to take revenge on the foreigners. But the power of the Normans was already established forever.

Oleg BORODAY

Sister of the Norman Duke Richard II. However, Ethelred II did not receive help from the Normans and was forced to flee with his family to Normandy.

The main striking force of the Norman army was the knightly cavalry. A well-developed military-feudal system and feudal hierarchy provided the Duke with fairly significant, well-trained and armed military forces. In Normandy there was a huge mass of small knights, over whom the dukes before William had no effective control and whose belligerence found outlet in campaigns in Italy, where the Norman county of Aversa and the Duchy of Apulia had already been formed. William was able to gather and attract these knights to his service. Unlike Harold, William was well acquainted with all aspects of modern military art. He enjoyed an excellent reputation as a knight and military leader, which attracted the manpower of all northern France to his army.

The Normans had extensive experience in military operations with small detachments of cavalry from fortress castles, which were quickly erected on the captured territory. Wars with the kings of France and the counts of Anjou allowed the Normans to improve their tactics against large enemy formations. William's army consisted of feudal militia from Norman barons and knights, cavalry and infantry contingents from Brittany, Picardy and other northern French areas, and mercenary troops. The Duke managed to maintain strict discipline in his army, which made it possible to unite disparate military units into a single fighting organism. If before William was busy with internal problems and defending the borders from the French and Angevin threats, then after 1060, thanks to the minority of the new king of France and civil strife in Anjou, the security of Normandy was ensured for some time, which opened up opportunities for external expansion.

Preparing for the invasion

Norwegian invasion of England in 1066
The dotted line marks the boundaries of the Godwin House's property.

At the beginning of 1066, William began preparations for the invasion of England. He received approval for this enterprise from the assembly of the barons of his duchy. William's reputation ensured an influx of knights into his army from Flanders, Aquitaine, Brittany, Maine and the Norman principalities of Southern Italy. William also won the support of the Emperor and, more importantly, Pope Alexander II, who hoped to strengthen the position of the papacy in England and remove Archbishop Stigand. The total strength of the Norman army grew to 7,000 people, for the transport of which a fleet of 600 ships was prepared. Preparations were completed by August 1066, but a headwind from the north for a long time did not allow the crossing of the English Channel to begin. On September 12, William relocated his army from the mouth of the Dives River to the mouth of the Somme, to the town of Saint-Valery, where the width of the strait was significantly smaller.

King Harold also led preparations to repel the Norman invasion. He called together national militia from all areas of England and stationed troops along the south coast. A new fleet was formed at a rapid pace, headed by the king. In May, Harold managed to repel Tostig's attack on the eastern regions of the country. However, in September the Anglo-Saxon naval defense system collapsed: food shortages forced the king to disband the fleet. In mid-September, a huge army of the Norwegian king Harald the Severe landed in northeastern England. Having defeated the militia of the northern counties at the Battle of Fulford on 20 September, the Norwegians brought Yorkshire into subjection. King Harold was forced to abandon his position on the south coast and quickly move north. On September 25, at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, English troops completely defeated the Norwegian Vikings, Harald the Severe was killed, and the remnants of his army sailed to Scandinavia.

Conquest

Battle of Hastings

William the Conqueror and Harold during the Battle of Hastings

Two days after the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the direction of the winds in the English Channel changed. The loading of the Norman army onto ships immediately began and late in the evening of September 27, William's fleet sailed from Saint-Valery. The crossing took the whole night and there was a moment when the Duke’s ship, having become far separated from the main forces, was left alone, but there were no English ships in the strait and the transportation of the army was completed safely on the morning of September 28 in the bay near the town of Pevensey. The Norman army did not remain in Pevensey, surrounded by marshes, but moved to Hastings, a more convenient port from a strategic point of view. Here William built a castle and began to wait for the approach of the English troops.

Subjugation of Northern England

Norman conquest of England in 1066
and the Anglo-Saxon revolts of 1067-1070.

Land ownership and social structure

Model of an Anglo-Norman castle

The specificity of the distribution of land holdings in England after the conquest was that almost all new barons received land in separate plots scattered throughout the country, which, with rare exceptions, did not form compact territories. Although it is probably impossible to say that the fragmentation of land holdings granted to the feud was a well-thought-out policy of King William, this feature of the organization of land ownership in Norman England did not allow the emergence of feudal principalities like the French or German ones, which played a huge role in the subsequent history of the country and ensured the king’s preponderance over the barons.

The conquest created a new ruling class - knights and barons of Norman origin. The new nobility owed their position to the king and performed a whole range of duties in relation to the monarch. The main ones of these responsibilities were military service, participation three times a year in the Great Royal Council, as well as holding various positions in the public administration system (primarily sheriffs). After the conquest and destruction of the Anglo-Saxon tradition of extensive earls, the role of sheriffs increased sharply: they became a key element of the royal administration on the ground, and in terms of their possessions and social status they were not inferior to the Anglo-Norman earls.

Central administration, fiscal and judicial systems

With regard to the organization of the central administration of the conquered country, King William mainly followed Anglo-Saxon traditions. Although at his court there were the positions of steward, butler, and chamberlain, borrowed from the French administration, they had mainly honorary functions. An important innovation was the establishment of the post of chancellor in the city, responsible for organizing the king's office work. The Great Royal Council, in which all the barons of the country took part, was the successor to the Anglo-Saxon Witenagemot. In the early Norman period, it began to meet regularly (three times a year), but lost a significant part of its influence on the development of political decisions, giving way to the royal curia (lat. Curia regis). The latter institution was a meeting of the barons and officials closest to the king, helping the monarch with advice on current problems of the state. The Curia became the central element of the royal administration, although its meetings were often informal.

The basic principles of the fiscal system did not change after the Norman Conquest. Financing of the royal administration continued to be based on revenues from domain lands (William the Conqueror retained about a seventh of all land holdings in England, the annual income of which was more than 11 thousand pounds sterling), payments from cities and revenues from legal proceedings. These sources were supplemented by receipts of a feudal nature (relief, guardianship rights, formalities). The practice of imposing a general tax on the population (“Danish money”) was continued, and the consent of the population to collect this tax was not required. The principles of distribution of taxes among counties, hundreds and guides have also been preserved since Anglo-Saxon times. To bring traditional tax rates into line with the modern state of the economy and the new system of land holdings, a general assessment of lands was carried out in the city, the results of which were presented in the “Domesday Book”.

After the Norman Conquest, which was accompanied by massive abuses and illegal seizures of land, the importance of legal proceedings increased sharply, becoming an instrument of royal power in regulating land and social relations in the country. A division of secular and ecclesiastical jurisdiction was carried out, a harmonious system of judicial bodies was created, and baronial courts arose. An important innovation was the widespread use of trial by jury, the origins of which can be traced both to Norman practice and to the traditions of the Danelaw. In the reorganization of the judicial system, Geoffroy, Bishop of Coutances, and Archbishop Lanfranc played an important role.

Meaning

IN socially The Norman conquest led to the destruction of the Anglo-Saxon military-service nobility (thegns) and the formation of a new dominant layer of feudal knighthood, built on the principles of vassal-feudal relations and possessing judicial and administrative power over the peasant population. Replaced by semi-independent

The Norman conquest of England is the process of the establishment of the Norman state in England and the destruction of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, which began with the invasion of the Norman Duke William in 1066 and ended in 1072 with the complete subjugation of England.

Background to the Norman Invasion of England

It is known that England suffered greatly from the constant invasions of the Vikings. The Anglo-Saxon king Ethelred was looking for someone who would help him fight against the Vikings; he saw such an ally in the Normans, and in order to conclude an alliance with them he married the sister of the Norman Duke, Emma. But he did not receive the promised help, which is why he left the country and took refuge in Normandy in 1013.
Three years later, all of England was conquered by the Vikings, and Canute the Great became their king. He united all of England, Norway and Denmark under his rule. Meanwhile, Æthelred's sons were thirty years in exile at the Norman court.
In 1042, one of Ethelred's sons, Edward, regained the English throne. Edward himself was childless and there was no direct heir to the throne, then he proclaimed the Norman Duke William as his heir. In 1052, power returned to the Anglo-Saxons. In 1066, Edward dies, which means William should become his heir, but the Anglo-Saxons, for their part, appoint Harold II as king.
Duke William, of course, contested this election and made his claim to the throne of England. This was the beginning of the Norman conquest of England.

Strengths of the parties

Anglo-Saxons
Their army was quite large, perhaps the largest army in all of Western Europe, but its problem was that it was poorly organized. Harold didn't even have a fleet at his disposal.
The core of Harold's army were the elite warriors of the housecarls, their number reached three thousand. In addition to them, there were a huge number of thegns (serving nobility) and an even larger number of firds (militia).
The big problem of the Anglo-Saxons was the almost complete lack of archers and cavalry, which later played, perhaps, a key role in their defeat.
Normandy
The backbone of William's army was made up of heavily armed and well-trained mounted knights. There were also a considerable number of archers in the army. Most of William's army were mercenaries; there weren't that many Normans themselves.
In addition, it should be noted that William himself was a brilliant tactician and had great knowledge of the art of war, and was also famous in the ranks of his army as a brave knight.
The total number of soldiers, according to historians, did not exceed 7-8 thousand. Harold's army was much larger, at least 20 thousand soldiers.
Norman invasion
The official beginning of the Norman invasion of England is considered to be the Battle of Hastings, which became a key moment in this campaign.
On October 14, 1066, the two armies clashed at Hastings. Harold had at his disposal a larger army than William. But brilliant tactical talent, Harold's mistakes, attacks by the Norman cavalry and the death of Harold himself in battle made it possible for William to win a brilliant victory.
After the battle, it became clear that there was no one left in the country who would lead the country in the fight against William, since everyone who could do this remained lying on the battlefield of Hastings.
In the same year, due to the limited Anglo-Saxon resistance, on December 25, William the First was proclaimed King of England; the coronation took place in Westminster Abbey. At first, the power of the Normans in England was strengthened only by military force; the people had not yet recognized the new king. In 1067, his position in the country became stronger, which allowed him to make a short trip to his native Normandy.
Only the southeastern lands of the country were under the complete control of William; the rest of the lands rebelled when he left for Normandy. A particularly large uprising took place in the southwestern lands. In 1068, another uprising began in the north of the country. Wilhelm had to act quickly and decisively, which he did. Having quickly taken York and built a number of castles in the north of England, he managed to stop the rebellion.
In 1069, another uprising began, this time the nobles were supported by the peasants. The rebels recaptured York, but William and his army brutally dealt with the rebels and recaptured York.
In the autumn of the same year, a Danish army landed on the coast of England and declared its claims to the throne. At the same time, uprisings of the last major Anglo-Saxon nobles broke out throughout northern and central England. This uprising was also supported by France. Thus, Wilhelm found himself in a difficult situation, surrounded by three enemies. But William had a very powerful cavalry army and already at the end of the same year he regained control of Northern England, and the Danish army returned to the ships.
To avoid a repeat of the possibility of uprisings, William ravaged the north of England. His troops burned villages, crops and residents were forced to leave Northern England. After this, all the nobles submitted to him.
After William bought the Danes in 1070, Anglo-Saxon resistance became greatly threatened. Wilhelm destroyed the last rebel forces on the island of Ili. He surrounded them and starved them out.
It was the fall of the last Anglo-Saxon nobles that marked the end of the Norman conquest of England. After this, the Anglo-Saxons no longer had a single aristocrat who could lead them into battle.

Consequences

The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were destroyed and power passed to the Normans. William founded a powerful country with a strong centralized king - England. Very soon, his newly created state would become the strongest in Europe for a long time, whose military strength it would be foolish not to take into account. And the whole world learned that the English cavalry had now become the decisive force on the battlefield.

Introduction

1 Background 2 Tostig's Raids and Norse Invasion 3 Norman Invasion 4 English Resistance 5 Governance of England 6 Change of Elite 7 English Emigration 8 System of Government 9 Language 10 Relations with France 11 Further Consequences 12 Literature 13 See also

Introduction

Fragment of the Bayeux Tapestry (fr. Tapisserie de Bayeux), 11th century depicting the Norman invasion of England

Norman conquest of England(English) Norman conquest of England) - The campaign of the Normans, led by Duke William of Normandy, against England in 1066 and its conquest. It began with the invasion of the Kingdom of England by William's troops and his victory at the Battle of Hastings. This gave the Normans control of England, firmly established over the next few years.

The Norman Conquest was a turning point in English history for several reasons. First, it eliminated the local ruling class, replacing it with a foreign, French-speaking monarchy, aristocracy and church hierarchy. This in turn led to the formation of the English language and the beginning of the modern understanding of English culture. The French origin of the rulers reduced Scandinavian influence, linked England more closely with continental Europe, and laid the foundation for a rivalry with France that continued intermittently for many centuries. The conquest also had important consequences for all of the British Isles, paving the way for further Norman conquests in Wales and Ireland, as well as the widespread penetration of the Norman aristocracy into the elite of Scottish society, accompanied by the spread of continental types of government institutions and cultural factors.

1. Prerequisites

Many Vikings moved to Normandy in the period before 1066. In 911, a French dynastic ruler allowed a group of Vikings and their leader named Rollo to settle in northern France as part of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. Charles hoped in this way to put an end to the attacks of the Vikings, who were devastating the coast of France at that time. In exchange, the Viking settlers must protect the shores from attackers.

The settlement was successful and the Vikings in the region became known as the “Normans”, meaning “Northerns”, which is where the name Normandy comes from. The Normans quickly adapted to the culture of the indigenous peoples, abandoned paganism and converted to Christianity. They began to speak the local language of Oil, adding to it features from Old Icelandic, thus forming the Norman language. Their further infusion into the local culture occurred mainly through mixed marriages. Using the territory provided to them as a base, the Normans expanded the borders of the duchy to the west, adding such territories as Besin, Cotentin and Avranches.

In 1002, King Ethelred II of England married Emma, sister of Duke Richard II of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who had spent many years in exile in Normandy, inherited the English throne in 1042. This led to the creation of a powerful Norman factor in English politics, as Edward relied heavily on those who had once given him shelter to recruit Normans into the court. , soldiers, clergy and appointed them to positions in government structures, especially in the church. Childless, embroiled in conflict with the formidable Earl of Wessex, Godwin, and his sons, Edward may even have encouraged the Norman Duke William's ambitions for the English throne.

King Edward died early in 1066; the absence of a direct heir led to a dispute over succession, in which several claimants encroached on the throne of England. Next in seniority after Edward was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, a wealthy and powerful figure from the English aristocracy, he was elected king of England beyond the Witenagemot and crowned Archbishop of York Ealdred, although Norman propaganda claimed that he was consecrated by Stigand, who had by then been excommunicated. Archbishop of Canterbury. However, Harold's rights to the throne were immediately challenged by two powerful rulers of neighboring states. Duke William stated that King Edward's throne was promised to him and Harold swore an oath to agree to this. Harald III of Norway also appealed Harold's royal rights. His claim to the throne was based on a hypothetical deal between his predecessor Magnus I of Norway and the previous Danish king of England, Hardeknud, whereby if one of them died without an heir, the other would succeed to the crowns of both England and Norway. Both William and Harald immediately began gathering troops and ships for the invasion.

2. Tostig's raids and the Norwegian invasion

In the spring of 1066, Harold, Tostig's brother Godwinson, who was at that time feuding with Harold, carried out a raid on the Pivdennoshede coast of England. He recruited a fleet for the raid in Flanders, and later ships from the Orkney Islands joined him. Harold's fleet forced Tostig to move north, where he attacked eastern England and Lincolnshire. The attack was repulsed by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia, and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria. Abandoned by most of his followers, Tostiga retreated to Scotland, where he spent the summer gathering new forces.

King Harald of Norway invaded northern England in early September with a fleet of over 300 ships, carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Harald's army was also strengthened by the troops of Tostig, who supported the claim of the Norwegian kings to the throne of England. The Norwegians advanced towards York and occupied the city, defeating the northern English army of Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the Battle of Fulford.

Harold spent the summer on the south coast with a large army and fleet in anticipation of an invasion from William. On September 8, he was forced to disband his forces due to food shortages. Having learned about the Norwegian attack, he went north, collecting new troops along the way. He managed to surprise the Norwegians, and defeat them in the extremely bloody Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Harald of Norway and Tostiga were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such terrible losses that only 24 of their 300 ships were enough to transport those who remained. The victory also came at a high price for the British, so Harold’s army was very weakened. Moreover, it was located far from the south.

3. Norman invasion

Meanwhile, William prepared for the invasion a large fleet and army, collected not only from Normandy, but from all of France, including significant contingents from Burgundy and Flanders. Concentrated at Saint-Valéry-sur-Saume, the troops were ready to move by 12 August, but the operation to cross the canal was postponed, either due to unfavorable weather conditions, or due to an attempt to avoid a collision with the powerful English fleet. In fact, the Normans landed in England a few days after Harold's victory over the Norwegians and the resulting dispersion of his naval forces. The landing took place at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September, after which the Normans built a wooden castle at Hastings, from which they raided the surrounding lands.

News of William's landing forced Harold to head south. He stopped in London to gather additional troops, so he went to William. On October 14, the Battle of Hastings took place. The British, having formed a solid wall of shields on the top of Senlak Hill, repelled the attacks of the Normans for several hours. The English infantry suffered heavy losses in the fight against the Norman cavalry. In the evening, the strength of the English army dried up, organized resistance ceased, and Harold died, as did his brothers Count Gears and Count Leofwin.

William expected that victory at Hastings would force the English leaders to recognize his superiority. But Witengamot, with the support of Counts Edwin and Morcar, as well as Archbishop Stigand of Canterbury and Archbishop Eldred of York, proclaimed Edgar Etheling king. William launched an attack on London along the Kent coast. He defeated the English troops who attacked his White Southwark, but was unable to storm London Bridge, so he must look for other routes to the capital.

William and his army set out along the Thames Valley, intending to cross the river at Wallingford, Berkshire; while there, he received a message from Stigand. He then went northeast along the Chiltern Hills to further approach London from the northwest. Having failed in their attempts to repel their attackers militarily, Edgar's main supporters, in desperation, showed up to William in Berkhamsteady, Hertfordshire. William was proclaimed King of England. Ealdred crowned him on December 25, 1066 in Westminster Abbey.

4. British resistance

Despite previous events, local resistance continued for several more years. In 1067, rebels in Kent, supported by Eustachius II of Bologna, launched an unsuccessful attack on Dover Castle. That same year, the Shropshire landowner Edric the Wild, with his allied Welsh rulers of the lands of Gwynedd and Hang, rebelled in western Mercia, attacking the Norman forces located in Hereford. In 1068, William besieged Exeter by rebel forces, among whom was Gytha Thorkelsdottir, and Harold suffered heavy losses, but was able to negotiate the surrender of the city.

Later that year, Edwin and Morcar revolted in Mercia with the help of the Welsh, and Earl Gospatric led a rebellion in Northumbria, which was not yet occupied by the Normans. These revolts quickly ended when William moved against them, building fortresses and posting pledges as he had done in the south. Edwin and Morcar again submitted to the rule of the Normans, but Gospatric fled to Scotland, as did Edgar Etheling and his family, who were also involved in the rebels. Meanwhile, Harold's sons, who had taken refuge in Ireland, raided Somerset, Devon and Cornwall by sea.

At the beginning of 1069, Robert de Comyn, who became Earl of Northumbria for the Normans, and several of his warriors were killed in Durham; Edgar, Gospatric, Siward Barn and other rebels joined the unrest in Northumbria and fled to Scotland. The Norman troops in York itself were defeated and killed, and the rebel forces besieged York Castle; however, the castellan of the castle, Wilhelm Maloye, managed to send Wilhelm I a message about these events. William arrived with an army from the south, defeated the rebels at York and drove them back to the city, where he massacred the inhabitants, leading to the end of the uprising. He built a second castle at York, reinforced the Norman forces in Northumbria, and then returned south. Another uprising in this area was suppressed by the garrison of York. Harold's son made a second attack from Ireland, but at Devon he was defeated by a Norman army under the command of Count Briand, son of Odo, Count of Penthievres.

At the end of the summer of 1069, a large fleet left by Svein II of Denmark arrived on the coast of England, which caused a new wave of uprisings throughout the country. After unsuccessful attacks in the south, the Danes joined their forces in a new Northumbrian rebellion, which included Edgar, Gospatric, other fugitives to Scotland, and Earl Walthof. Together they defeated the Norman garrison at York, occupied castles and took control of Northumbria, but Edgar's attack on Lincolnshire was repulsed by Lincoln's Norman crew.

Time, resistance again developed in western Mercia, where Edric the Wild with his Welsh allies and more rebels from Cheshire and Shropshire attacked Shrewsbury Castle. In the southwest, rebels from Devon and Cornwall attacked the Norman troops at Exeter, but their attack was repulsed and the attackers were scattered by the Normans of Earl Briand, who arrived to relieve the castle. Other rebels from Dorset, Somerset and surrounding areas besieged Montacute Castle, but were defeated by Norman troops under Geoffroy where Montbry, raised against them from London, Winchester and Salisbury.

Meanwhile, William attacked the Danes who settled for the winter south of the Humber in Lincolnshire and drove them back to the north coast. Leaving Lincolnshire to Robert de Mortain, he marched west and defeated the Mercian rebels at Stafford. When the Danes crossed the Humber again, they were once again turned back across the river by Norman troops. William went to Northumbria, thwarting an attempt to block his troops crossing the River Erie near the city of Pontefract. His appearance forced the Danes to flee, and he occupied York, after which he entered into an agreement with the Danes, who now agreed to leave England for money in the spring. During the winter, Norman troops systematically desecrated Northumbria, destroying all possible resistance.

In the spring of 1070, having secured the support of Walthoff and Gospatric, and having driven Edgar and the remnants of his supporters into Scotland, William returned to Mercia, where he settled in Chester, and used it as a base to finally destroy the remnants of resistance in the surrounding lands before returning to the south. Svein II of Denmark personally arrived to command the fleet, announced the termination of the preliminary agreement and sent troops to the Fensky Marshes to join the forces of the English rebels under the command of Hereward, who were located on the island of Ely. However, Svein soon received a new amount of ransom from Wilhelm and with that he returned home.

After the departure of the Danes, numerous Fensky rebels remained, protected by swamps. At the beginning of 1071, the last surge of rebel activity took place here. Edwin and Morcar again opposed William. Edwina was betrayed and killed, but Morcar reached Ely, where he and Hereward joined forces with the former fugitives who had now sailed from Scotland. William arrived with an army and navy to finish off this last island of resistance. After several serious setbacks, the Normans were able to build a floating bridge, reach the island of Ely, defeat the rebel curtain near the bridge and storm the island, thus ending British resistance.

Most of the contemporary Norman sources that still survive were written to justify the actions of the Normans, as a response to the Pope's concerns about how the victorious Normans dealt with the local English.

5. Governance of England

After the conquest of England, the Normans faced a lot of problems in maintaining control over the conquered country. The Normans were relatively few in number compared to the English population. Historians estimate the number of Norman settlers to be around 8,000, but this number includes not only the Normans themselves, but also immigrants from other parts of France. The Normans were able to overcome the difficulties caused by their small numbers, thanks to the latest management methods at that time.

First, unlike Canute the Great, who preferred to reward followers with money rather than replace local landowners with it, William's followers expected and received lands and titles as reward for their service during the invasion. At the same time, William declared himself the owner of almost all the land over which his troops gained control, and asserted his right to dispose of it at his own discretion. Thus, land could only be obtained from the king. First, William confiscated the lands of all the English lords who had fought on Harold's side and divided most of these lands among the Normans (although some families were able to "redeem" their property and titles by asking William personally for it). These confiscations caused unrest, prompted more confiscations, and the scheme continued uninterrupted for about five years after the Battle of Hastings. To prevent unrest, the Normans built fortresses and castles in unprecedented numbers.

Even when active resistance to his rule ceased, William and his barons continued to use their positions to expand and consolidate Norman control over the country. For example, if an English landowner died without descendants, the king (or, in the case of low-level landowners, one of his barons) could appoint an heir; the designated heir usually came from Normandy. William and the barons also exercised strict control over the inheritance of property by widows and daughters, often forcing such to marry Normans. In this way, the Normans overshadowed the local aristocracy and took control over the upper strata of society.

William's success in establishing control is evidenced by the fact that from 1072 until the Capetian capture of Normandy in 1204, William and his successors ruled the country from abroad. For example, after 1072, William spent more than 75% of his time in France. He had to be personally present in Normandy to protect his lands from external enemies and prevent internal unrest, while the existence of a royal administration in England allowed him to rule England remotely. Anglo-Norman barons also frequently adopted similar practices.

Another important goal for William was to keep the Norman lords as a cohesive and loyal group to him, since infighting between the Normans gave the local English a chance of victory over their Anglo-Francophone lords. One of the ways to achieve this was the policy of distributing land in small parts and punishing unauthorized seizure of possessions. The lands owned by a Norman lord were usually scattered in small pieces throughout England and Normandy, rather than forming a single geographical block. Thus, if a lord tried to break away from royal authority, he could only protect a small part of his possessions.

Over time, this same policy greatly facilitated contacts between the aristocracy of different regions and encouraged the Anglo-Norman gentry to self-organize and act together at the class level, and not just at the individual or regional level, as happened in other feudal countries. The existence of a strong centralized monarchy encouraged the aristocracy to form ties with the urban population, which subsequently contributed to the development of English parliamentarism.

6. Change of elite

The direct consequence of the invasion was the almost complete elimination of the old English aristocracy and the loss of British control over the Catholic Church in England. William systematically eliminated English landowners and transferred their wealth to his continental followers. The Domesday Book carefully recorded the consequences of this colossal program of expropriations; from its materials it follows that already in 1086 only about 5% of English lands south of the Tisza remained in English ownership. This small number decreased in the following decades, the disappearance of local landowners being complete in the southern part of the country.

Soon local residents were also removed from high government and church positions. After 1075, all counties were transferred to the control of the Normans, the English only held the positions of sheriffs here and there. Also in church affairs, the highest officials of English origin were either relieved of their positions or retained them until the end of their lives, but the Normans became their successors. In 1096 there was no longer a single English bishop, and English abbots became a rarity, especially in large monasteries.

No other medieval conquest of Christians by Christians had such devastating consequences for the ruling class of the defeated side. Meanwhile, William's prestige among his followers grew high, because he could reward them with significant land plots without much strain on himself. These awards, in addition, contributed to the strengthening of the power of William himself, so each new feudal lord had the opportunity to build a castle and conquer the local population. Thus the conquest fed on itself.

7. English emigration

Large numbers of Englishmen, especially those belonging to the destroyed class of former landowners, finally found Norman rule intolerable and emigrated. Particularly popular destinations for emigration were Scotland and the Byzantine Empire, some of the emigrants moved to Scandinavia or even more distant regions, such as Rus' or along the shores of the Black Sea. Most of the English gentry and soldiers emigrated to Byzantium, where they formed the majority in the so-called Varangian Guard, which consisted mainly of immigrants from Scandinavia. The English Varangians continued to serve the Empire at least until the middle of the 14th century.

8. Public administration system

Before the arrival of the Normans, Anglo-Saxon England had one of the most complex systems of government in Western Europe. The country was divided into administrative units (the so-called "shiri") of approximately the same size and shape, which were administered by individuals called "Shirsky snout" or "Sheriff". "Shiri" tended to enjoy a certain autonomy and did not have overall coordinated control. The English government widely used written documentation in its activities, which was extremely unusual for Western Europe at that time and ensured effective management than oral orders.

English government bodies had permanent locations. Most medieval governments were always on the move and carried out their activities wherever there were favorable weather conditions or food supplies at that time. This practice limited the possible size and complexity of government machinery, especially the treasury and library - armor for these industries should be limited to objects of the size that could be loaded on a horse and visa. England had a permanent treasury in Winchester, from which the spread of a permanent bureaucratic government apparatus and document flow began.

This complex form of medieval government was adopted and further developed by the Normans. They centralized the system of autonomous shires. The Domesday Book provides examples of the practical codification that made it easier for the Normans to assimilate conquered territories through central control of the census. This was the first national census in Europe since the Roman Empire and allowed the Normans to more effectively collect taxes from their new possessions.

The accounting system has grown significantly and become more complex. The so-called House of Plates was founded in 1150, shortly after Henry's death, and the House was located in the Palace of Westminster. Now the office of the President of the House is located nearby, at 11 Downing Street. Nearby, at number 10, he is also the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The Royal Treasury itself is located a block away, Horse Guard Street, 1.

9. Language

One of the most notable changes that England underwent was that Anglo-Norman, which had been a northern dialect of Old French, became the language of the English ruling class, replacing Old English as such. French influence increased further with the influx in the mid-twelfth century of followers of the Angevin dynasty, who spoke a more generalized dialect of French. It was only in the fourteenth century that the English language partially regained its former dominance, and in legal proceedings French was used even in the fifteenth century.

During this time, the English language itself underwent significant changes, developing into a rather different version of Middle English from the previous version, which became the basis of modern English. During the centuries of French linguistic dominance, a significant part of the words in the English language disappeared and were replaced by French equivalents, thus the current hybrid speech arose, in which basic English vocabulary is combined with predominantly French abstract and technical ones. The grammatical structures of the language also underwent significant changes, although it is not clear how much of these changes are related specifically to the marginalization of English after the Norman Conquest.

10. Relations with France

After the conquest, relations between the Anglo-Norman monarchy and the French crown became increasingly unmanageable. Even before the invasion, William had considerable tension in his relations with the Capetians, which was further increased by the Capetian support of his son Robert Kurtghoz, who waged war against his father and subsequently against his brothers. As Duke of Normandy, William and his descendants were vassals of the French king, but as King of England he was therefore an equal.

In 1150, with the creation of the Angevin Empire, the Plantagenets, successors to the Norman dukes, controlled half of France and all of England, which exceeded the power of the Capetians. The contradictions arising from this situation intensified even more with the growth of the French monarchy and the expansion of its rights and power over its vassals. The crisis finally took shape in 1204, when Philip II of France took away from the Normans and Angevins all their possessions in France, with the exception of Gascony.

In the fourteenth century, the periodic wars for control of the continental territories of the kings of England, which had continued since William's time, escalated into the Hundred Years' War, sparked by Edward III's efforts to regain the lands of their ancestors in France, and to extend the sovereignty he had enjoyed in England to his French lands. possessions, severed his vassal ties with the French crown. This struggle ended only after the final decline of the Plantagenet position in France in 1453, effectively breaking the ties created in 1066. Thus, the involvement of the English kingdom in the affairs of the continental possessions and the interests of the French landowners who seized the throne in England involved England in almost four centuries of wars against the kings of France. These conflicts laid the foundation for further Anglo-French rivalry.

11. Further consequences

Already in the 12th century, as evidenced by the Dialogue on the Chessboard Chamber, there was a significant increase in the number of intermarriages between natural Englishmen and Norman immigrants. In later centuries, especially after the Black Death pandemic wiped out a large proportion of the English nobility in 1348, the two groups became even more intermingled until the differences between them became barely noticeable.

The Norman Conquest is considered the last successful attempt at conquest of England, although the victory of the Dutch in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 can be seen as the next successful invasion from the continent; the important difference is that during the Glorious Revolution one part of the English ruling class, united around Parliament, collaborated with foreign forces to oust another part of the ruling class, united around the monarchical Stuart dynasty, while at the time of the Norman Conquest they were replaced the entire ruling class of England.

Serious invasion attempts were made by Spain in 1588 and France in 1744 and 1759, but in each case the combined effect of weather conditions and the actions of the Royal Navy thwarted the attacks, preventing the attackers from even landing on the islands. Invasion was also planned by France in 1805 and Nazi Germany in 1940, but practical invasion attempts failed because preparatory operations failed to neutralize the British fleet and, in the second case, the air force.

Several smaller, localized and very short raids on the British coast were successful in achieving their limited objectives. Such were, for example, several attacks on coastal cities by France during the Hundred Years' War, the Spanish landing at Cornwall in 1595, raids carried out by Barbary pirates to capture slaves in the seventeenth century, and the Dutch attack on the Medvey shipyards in 1667.

12. Literature

Douglas.

Stanton F.

Battle of Hastings Tapestry of Bayeux Norman conquest of southern Italy Norman invasion of Wales Norman invasion of Ireland Medieval invasion of Britain