Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Russian Empire in the second quarter of the 18th century. conditions for the liberation of the peasants

In the 60-70s of the 19th century, structural transformations of class, administrative and legal institutions were carried out in Russia, which led to the modernization of the political system and were therefore called by contemporaries the "great reforms" of Alexander II. The country embarked on this path, firstly, as a result of the challenge "thrown" to it by rapidly developing Europe, and, secondly, under the influence of the crisis of the Nikolaev system.

By the middle of the century, a lot of objective prerequisites had accumulated for a radical agrarian reform. Firstly, the landowner economy, based on non-economic coercion of the peasants to work, was going through a crisis state more and more noticeably, the efficiency of farms was declining, and the question of the transition from subsistence to market economy was more acute. Secondly, the rapid development of industry was in conflict with feudal relations in agriculture. Thirdly, the country was painfully experiencing the defeat in the Crimean War, which was the result of a military and technical lag behind the advanced countries of the world. Fourthly, an increasing number of peasant anti-feudal uprisings were recorded in the country, which could not but worry the country's leadership. In 1856, Alexander II uttered the famous words: “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it is itself abolished from below,” because he was afraid that he might be removed as an incapable tsar. This made Alexander II think about the next steps, but the most difficult thing was to convince the landowners to go for significant changes,

The statement of Alexander II about the alleged abolition of serfdom literally stirred up public opinion in the country. Beginning in January 1857, various commissions and committees began to be created in the government to develop measures "to organize the life of the landowning peasants." The attitude of the landowners themselves to the impending changes was ambiguous. Most of them had a negative attitude towards the upcoming reform, believing that the peasants were not ready to live independently, without the guardianship and control of the landowners. The documents that were prepared for 1860 were the result of a compromise between various groups of nobles and the government, taking into account the objective requirements of the country's economic and political development.

February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed Manifesto for the liberation of the peasants. On the same day the king signed and "Regulations on the peasants who came out of serfdom", which included 17 legislative acts and received the force of law. In accordance with the Manifesto, all serfs from now on received personal freedom and civil rights. They could enter into various property and civil transactions, open their own enterprises in trade and industry, move to other classes, leave for other settlements of the country, marry without the consent of the landowner, etc.

The country established an elective peasant self-government- village and volost gatherings (meetings), where village elders and volost foremen were elected. A volost peasant court was introduced for property claims and minor crimes. By decision of the court, the peasants themselves could distribute communal lands among themselves, establish the sequence and volume of duties, etc. In most regions of Russia, which were affected by the agrarian reform (and this happened only in those provinces where there was landownership), the land was transferred from the landlords not to a separate peasant economy, but to the rural community as a whole, where allotments were distributed between peasant households according to the number male shower. Within the community, the peasants were not the owners of the land, but only its temporary users. The community maintained the rules of mutual responsibility.

In accordance with the law, the peasants became largely dependent on the rural community, without the consent of which they could not freely dispose of their allotments, leave the village. The communal form of land use served as a clear brake on the path of progress, holding back the process of differentiation of peasant farms and the penetration of market relations into the countryside.

In fact, the peasants bought not only land plots, but also their personal freedom. The calculated amounts of redemption payments for the vast majority of the peasants turned out to be simply colossal, and they could not immediately pay them off. 80% of the redemption amount of the landowners was reimbursed by the state in the form of securities at 5% of annual income. The peasants had to pay this 80% sum to the state within 49 years.

It should be emphasized that even 20% of the redemption payments for the peasants were a huge amount. Their payment was delayed for many years. The response of the peasants to the emancipation law was sharply negative. In 1861, a wave of peasant protest swept through the country against the conditions under which they were released into the wild.

The reform of 1861 meant that the era of feudalism in Russia was ending, but its remnants remained for many years to come as a reality of the economic life of the country. This was manifested in the fact that the landowners not only retained huge landholdings, but also took away part of the best land from the community, while the bulk of the peasants experienced land hunger. However, the abolition of serfdom was a progressive step. It contributed to the development of new economic relations not only in the countryside, but in the entire national economy of the country.

Following the agrarian reform in Russia, other transformations were carried out, primarily in the field of local self-government, the need for which was obvious to everyone. The fact is that before Alexander II, all self-government bodies in Russia had a class character. The development of market relations prompted the government to carry out reforms to create all-estate administrative structures in order to turn the feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one, in order to adapt the political system of Russia to the new economic conditions.

One of the most important was the reform of local government, known as zemstvo reform. January 1, 1864 was published "Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo institutions", in accordance with which classless elected bodies of local government were formed - zemstvos, elected by all classes for three years. The zemstvos consisted of administrative bodies (county and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (county and provincial zemstvo councils).

Zemstvos had the right to hire zemstvo doctors, teachers, land surveyors and other employees. For the maintenance of zemstvo employees, there were certain taxes from the population. Zemstvos were in charge of a wide variety of local services: the construction and operation of roads, the post office, public education, health care, social protection of the population, mutual insurance, etc. All zemstvo institutions were under the control of local and central authorities - the governor and the minister of internal affairs. The narrowness of the social base of urban self-government and the strict control over it by the provincial presence made the reform limited. But in general, for Russia, the creation of a system of local self-government in the form of zemstvos played a positive role in solving various problems at the local level.

Following the zemstvo reform in the country, urban reform. In accordance with the "City Regulations" (1870), a system of city elective self-government was established in 509 cities. Instead of the previously existing class city administrations in cities, the city duma, headed by the city government, began to be elected for four years. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of the city duma and the city council. Not all citizens had the right to vote, but only those who corresponded to a sufficiently high property qualification: wealthy homeowners, merchants, industrialists, bankers, officials. The competence of the city duma and council included economic issues: landscaping, law enforcement, local trade, health care, education, sanitary and fire protection of the population.

Since 1864, the country has been judicial reform, according to which a classless, public court with the participation of jurors, advocacy and competitiveness of the parties were approved. A unified system of judicial institutions was created, proceeding from the formal equality before the law of all social groups of the population. And within the province, which constituted the judicial district, a district court was created. The Judicial Chamber united several judicial districts. As a rule, decisions of the district court and judicial chambers with the participation of jurors were considered final and could be appealed only if the order of legal proceedings was violated. The highest court of cassation was the Senate, which accepted appeals against court decisions. For the analysis of minor offenses and civil claims up to 500 rubles. in counties and cities there was a world court. Justices of the peace were elected at county zemstvo assemblies.

The chairmen and members of the district courts and judicial chambers were approved by the emperor, and the justices of the peace - by the Senate, and after that they could not be dismissed and even temporarily removed from office, that is, the principle of irremovability of judges was introduced. The new judicial system corresponded to the level of advanced European countries. Its introduction led, in essence, to the allocation of judicial power in Russia, when the emperor had only the right to pardon. But the judicial reform did not affect many national outskirts.

In the 1860s, there were education reform. Primary public schools were created in the cities, along with classical gymnasiums, real schools began to function, in which more attention was paid to the study of mathematics, the natural sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills in technology. In 1863, the university charter of 1803 was recreated, which had been curtailed during the reign of Nicholas I, according to which the partial autonomy of universities, the election of rectors and deans, etc., were again secured. In 1869, the first women's educational institutions were created in Russia - the Higher Women's Courses with university programs. In this respect, Russia was ahead of many European countries.

In the 1860s and 1870s, a military reform, the need for which was primarily due to the defeat in the Crimean War. First, the term of military service was reduced to 12 years. In 1874, recruitment was abolished and universal military service was established, which applied to the entire male population who had reached the age of 20, without class distinctions. The only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, as well as the youngest son, if the eldest is in military service or has already served his term, were not subject to active service. Recruits from the peasantry were taught not only military affairs, but also literacy, which made up for the lack of school education in the countryside.

Analyzing the reforms of Alexander II, it should be noted that not everything that was conceived in the early 1860s was implemented. Many reforms have been limited, inconsistent, or left unfinished. And yet they should be called truly "Great Reforms", which were of great importance for the subsequent development of all aspects of Russian life. In the history of Russia, it turned out that none of the reforms that were conceived and carried out in the country was brought comprehensively and consistently to its logical conclusion. Moreover, incomplete transformations were complicated by various counter-reforms, and subsequent generations sometimes had to start all over again.

In the morning, a few hours before his death, Alexander II appointed a meeting of the State Council to discuss the draft, called the "constitution" of M.T. Loris-Melikova. But the death of the emperor prevented the implementation of these plans, the transition to a policy of counter-reforms was historically a foregone conclusion. Russia was faced with a choice - either to continue the bourgeois-liberal reforms up to the restructuring of the entire system of social relations, or, compensating for the costs of the policy of strengthening the estate and imperial foundations of statehood, to take a course towards deep economic transformations.

The period of the reign of Alexander II was the last in the history of imperial Russia, during which significant territories were forcibly annexed. For several decades, Russia carried out an offensive against Central Asia, which began under Nicholas I with an unsuccessful campaign against Khiva in 1839. Only after the complete annexation of Kazakhstan in the 1850s, Russia was able to launch a systematic offensive against the Kokand, Bukhara and Khiva khanates. This was done under the pressure of complex geopolitical contradictions between Russia and England, which claimed its presence in Central Asia. Russia also needed a vast market for manufactured goods and a source of raw cotton for the textile industry, since the bulk of raw cotton (up to 90%) came from the United States. But in the middle of the 19th century, due to the Civil War in this country, the flow of American cotton almost stopped, and the Russian cotton industry was in a difficult situation. After the annexation of Central Asia, Russia began to meet the main needs for raw cotton through domestic production.

Military operations in Central Asia have been going on for many years, as the Russian troops met fierce resistance there. In 1867, the Turkestan General Government was formed with the center in Tashkent, which included Bukhara and Kokand, and in 1873 Khiva. In the same period, Russia was more than once "on the verge of war" with England, with which an agreement was eventually concluded on the delimitation of spheres of influence (1885). Afghanistan and Tibet remained under the control of England, and Central Asia remained under the control of Russia.

During the reign of Alexander II, the so-called "Caucasian issue". And although most of the Transcaucasus joined Russia at the beginning of the 19th century, the North Caucasus (except for Kabarda and Ossetia) still remained independent. For almost 50 years - from 1817 to 1864 - the Caucasian War lasted, costing the peoples of Dagestan, Circassia, Chechnya, Adygea, and even Russia itself many forces and victims. More than 100 peoples of the North Caucasus were included in the empire through the brutal suppression of their resistance.

In the 1850s and 1860s, Russia acquired significant territories in the Far East. Since China had great complications in relations with England and France in 1857, Russia took advantage of this and sent troops into the Amur Region along the left bank of the river. Amur. The troops were led by the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov-Amursky. China signed the Treaty of Aigun with Russia in 1858, according to which it ceded the Amur Region to Russia. Under the agreement of 1860, concluded in Beijing, the Ussuri Territory (Primorskaya Oblast) was annexed to Russia, where settlements and cities very quickly arose: Blagoveshchensk, Khabarovsk, Nikolaevsk - on the Amur, Vladivostok. A stream of Russian settlers poured into Primorye to colonize new territories.

In the 1850s-1870s, there was a delimitation of the possessions of Japan and Russia in the Far East. As a result of the naval blockade of 1854-1855 in the city of Shimoda, an agreement was concluded between Russia and Japan "On Peace and Friendship", according to which the Kuril Islands, except for the southern group, were declared Russian. Sakhalin Island was proclaimed joint possession of the two countries. Despite the fact that Russian pioneers have mastered these territories. But in 1875, this treaty was revised, as a result of which all of Sakhalin became only Russian possession, but all the Kuril Islands went to Japan, which was confirmed by the Russian-Japanese navigation treaty in 1895. And yet, relations between the two countries remained quite tense, which later resulted in the Russo-Japanese War at the beginning of the 20th century.

In the 1860s, diplomatic relations were established with the United States, and mutual friendly relations were maintained between the countries. There has been discussion for several years about selling Russian possessions in North America to the United States, as it became increasingly difficult for Russia to defend these remote territories, and the cost of maintaining them exceeded their income. After the end of the American Civil War, these negotiations intensified, and Russia, which was experiencing financial difficulties, agreed in 1867 to the sale of Alaska and its other American territories with an area of ​​​​more than 1.5 million square meters. km for only 7.2 million dollars, or 14 million rubles.

Alexander III, fearing the escalation of the revolutionary movement, held a series of events (the so-called "reforms inside out"). So, the government began to actively support the landowners in order to prevent their ruin. A special Noble Bank was organized, whose capital was several times larger than the funds of the Peasant Bank.

In order to limit the effect of many liberal laws, the Provisional Rules on the Press (1882) were introduced, which established strict administrative control over newspapers and magazines. Many liberal and radical publications were closed. In 1887, a circular on "cook's children" was published, according to which it was forbidden to accept children of coachmen, lackeys, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like in the gymnasium, in 1884 the autonomy of universities was actually eliminated.

In 1889, the “Regulations on zemstvo chiefs” were issued, according to which zemstvo chiefs were charged with supervising and controlling the activities of peasant rural and volost institutions, dismissing village elders and volost foremen, subjecting any peasants to corporal punishment and arrest, etc.

In accordance with various documents of the 1880-1890s, the elective representation of peasants in provincial and district zemstvo institutions was sharply reduced, and the voting rights of the urban population were curtailed by raising the property qualification. In the same years, attempts were made to limit the judicial reform of 1864-1870. Many measures could not be implemented, but a noticeable slowdown in the course of Alexander II occurred.

The main feature of the economic life of post-reform Russia was the rapid development of the market economy. Although this process originated in the depths of serfdom, it was the reforms of the 1860-1870s that opened a wide avenue for new socio-economic relations, allowed them to establish themselves in the economy as the dominant system, the “Great Reforms” of Alexander II made it possible to break feudal relations not only on village, but also in the entire national economy as a whole, to complete the industrial revolution, to form new social groups that are characteristic of a market economy. This transitional process was complicated by the presence of a rather backward political system - absolutist autocracy and the class structure of society, which led to contradictory and painful events at the turn of the century.

The remnants of serfdom, preserved in the post-reform period, after 1861, hindered the development of market relations in agriculture. Huge redemption payments were a heavy burden on millions of peasants. As a result of all this, the rise of agriculture proceeded slowly and with great difficulty.

And yet, in the 1880s and 1890s, market relations also penetrated into the agricultural sector. This was noticeable in several ways: there was a social differentiation of the peasant population, the essence of the landlord economy was changing, and the orientation of specialized farms and regions to the market increased. Zemstvo statistics already in the 1880s showed a significant property stratification of the peasants. First of all, a layer of wealthy peasants was formed, whose farms consisted of their own allotments and allotments of impoverished community members. From this layer, kulaks stood out, who ran an entrepreneurial economy.

During the reign of Alexander III, Russia came out on top in the world in terms of growth in industrial production. This was largely facilitated by the expansion of state and foreign investment in the mining and metallurgical industries, and the construction of railways. In 1882, legislation on the labor issue began to take shape, for the first time the foundations of non-state pension provision and social insurance began to form. At the same time, the leading world powers have already completed industrialization, while Russia continued to follow the path of the country of “catching up capitalism”.

Nevertheless, certain sections of society were dissatisfied with the existing state of affairs - the political regime, inconsistency in resolving the peasant issue, which gave rise to various ideological and political currents.

Populists- democratic movement of the 70-80s. XIX century, the purpose of which was to protect the interests of the peasants, the transition of Russia, bypassing capitalism to socialism. Leading the populist movement M. Bakunin, P. Lavrov, P. Tkachev. These three leaders each offered their own theory of change in Russian society. Tasks of his activity M. Bakunin ( rebellious current) saw in the propaganda of revolutionary ideas among the peasants with the aim of organizing a general revolution and a world revolution. P. Lavrov ( propaganda direction) believed that the peasantry was not capable of rising to the revolution, advocated the enlightenment of the people, the explanation of revolutionary ideas to the peasantry. P. Tkachev and his supporters ( conspiratorial direction) proposed organizing a conspiracy to seize government in the country. The leading role was assigned to the revolutionary intelligentsia.

Despite the differences in approaches, the theories of the populists converged on the need for propaganda among the peasantry, the inevitability of the replacement of the existing government with the power of the people, in connection with which the populists in 1874 organized a “walk to the people”. However, this action was not successful.

In 1876, the Narodniks created a secret organization called "Land and Freedom". Some of the Narodniks went over to terror. Differences in issues and tactics of further struggle led in 1879 to a split in the organization into the Black Redistribution, which advocated propaganda, and the People's Will, for terror.

G.V. Plekhanov, one of the leaders of the "Land and Freedom" in 1883 in Geneva, created a group "Emancipation of Labor", whose task was to promote the ideas of Marxism and use them in the conditions of Russia. In 1883-84. the first Marxist groups and circles begin to emerge in Russia.

The formation of the Russian Empire happened on October 22, 1721, according to the old style, or on November 2. It was on this day that the last Russian tsar, Peter the Great, declared himself emperor of Russia. This happened as one of the consequences of the northern war, after which the Senate asked Peter 1 to accept the title of Emperor of the country. The state received the name "Russian Empire". Its capital was the city of St. Petersburg. For all the time, the capital was transferred to Moscow only for 2 years (from 1728 to 1730).

Territory of the Russian Empire

Considering the history of Russia of that era, it must be remembered that at the time of the formation of the empire, large territories were annexed to the country. This became possible thanks to the successful foreign policy of the country, which was led by Peter 1. He created a new history, a history that returned Russia to the ranks of world leaders and powers whose opinion should be reckoned with.

The territory of the Russian Empire was 21.8 million km2. It was the second largest country in the world. In the first place was the British Empire with its numerous colonies. Most of them have retained their status to this day. The first laws of the country divided its territory into 8 provinces, each of which was controlled by a governor. He had full local authority, including the judiciary. Later, Catherine 2 increased the number of provinces to 50. Of course, this was done not by annexing new lands, but by crushing them. This greatly increased the state apparatus and rather significantly reduced the effectiveness of local government in the country. We will talk about this in more detail in the corresponding article. It should be noted that at the time of the collapse of the Russian Empire, its territory consisted of 78 provinces. The largest cities in the country were:

1. St. Petersburg.
2. Moscow.
3. Warsaw.
4. Odessa.
5. Lodz.
6. Riga.
7. Kyiv.
8. Kharkiv.
9. Tiflis.
10. Tashkent.

The history of the Russian Empire is full of both bright and negative moments. In this time period, which lasted less than two centuries, a huge number of fateful moments were invested in the fate of our country. It was during the period of the Russian Empire that the Patriotic War, campaigns in the Caucasus, campaigns in India, European campaigns took place. The country developed dynamically. The reforms affected absolutely all aspects of life. It was the history of the Russian Empire that gave our country great commanders, whose names are on the lips to this day not only in Russia, but throughout Europe - Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov and Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. These illustrious generals forever inscribed their names in the history of our country and covered Russian weapons with eternal glory.

Map

We present a map of the Russian Empire, a brief history of which we are considering, which shows the European part of the country with all the changes that have occurred in terms of territories over the years of the existence of the state.

Population

By the end of the 18th century, the Russian Empire was the largest country in the world in terms of area. Its scale was such that the messenger, who was sent to all corners of the country to report the death of Catherine 2, arrived in Kamchatka after 3 months! And this despite the fact that the messenger rode almost 200 km daily.

Russia was also the most populous country. In 1800, about 40 million people lived in the Russian Empire, most of them in the European part of the country. A little less than 3 million lived beyond the Urals. The national composition of the country was motley:

• East Slavs. Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians (Little Russians), Belarusians. For a long time, almost until the very end of the Empire, it was considered a single people.
• Estonians, Latvians, Latvians and Germans lived in the Baltics.
• Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Karelians, Udmurts, etc.), Altai (Kalmyks) and Turkic (Bashkirs, Tatars, etc.) peoples.
• The peoples of Siberia and the Far East (Yakuts, Evens, Buryats, Chukchi, etc.).

In the course of the formation of the country, part of the Kazakhs and Jews who lived on the territory of Poland, who, after its collapse, went to Russia, turned out to be its citizenship.

The main class in the country were peasants (about 90%). Other classes: philistinism (4%), merchants (1%), and the remaining 5% of the population were distributed among the Cossacks, the clergy and the nobility. This is the classic structure of an agrarian society. Indeed, the main occupation of the Russian Empire was agriculture. It is no coincidence that all the indicators that lovers of the tsarist regime are so proud of today are related to agriculture (we are talking about the import of grain and butter).

By the end of the 19th century, 128.9 million people lived in Russia, of which 16 million lived in cities, and the rest in villages.

Political system

The Russian Empire was autocratic in the form of its government, where all power was concentrated in the hands of one person - the emperor, who was often called, in the old manner, the king. Peter 1 laid down in the laws of Russia precisely the unlimited power of the monarch, which ensured the autocracy. Simultaneously with the state, the autocrat actually controlled the church.

An important point - after the reign of Paul 1, autocracy in Russia could no longer be called absolute. This happened due to the fact that Paul 1 issued a decree that canceled the system for the transfer of the throne, established by Peter 1. Peter Alekseevich Romanov, let me remind you, decided that the ruler himself determines his successor. Some historians today speak of the negative of this document, but this is precisely the essence of autocracy - the ruler makes all decisions, including about his successor. After Paul 1, the system returned, in which the son inherits the throne after his father.

Rulers of the country

Below is a list of all the rulers of the Russian Empire during the period of its existence (1721-1917).

Rulers of the Russian Empire

Emperor	Years of government
Peter 1	1721-1725
Catherine 1	1725-1727
Peter 2	1727-1730
Anna Ioannovna	1730-1740
Ivan 6	1740-1741
Elizabeth 1	1741-1762
Peter 3	1762
Catherine 2	1762-1796
Pavel 1	1796-1801
Alexander 1	1801-1825
Nicholas 1	1825-1855
Alexander 2	1855-1881
Alexander 3	1881-1894
Nicholas 2	1894-1917

All the rulers were from the Romanov dynasty, and after the overthrow of Nicholas 2 and the murder of himself and his family by the Bolsheviks, the dynasty was interrupted, and the Russian Empire ceased to exist, changing the form of statehood to the USSR.

Main dates

During its existence, and this is almost 200 years, the Russian Empire has experienced many important moments and events that have had an impact on the state and people.

• 1722 - Table of ranks
• 1799 - Suvorov's foreign campaigns in Italy and Switzerland
• 1809 - Accession of Finland
• 1812 - Patriotic War
• 1817-1864 - Caucasian War
• 1825 (December 14) - Decembrist uprising
• 1867 Sale of Alaska
• 1881 (March 1) the murder of Alexander 2
• 1905 (January 9) - Bloody Sunday
• 1914-1918 - World War I
• 1917 - February and October revolutions

End of the Empire

The history of the Russian Empire ended on September 1, 1917, according to the old style. It was on this day that the Republic was proclaimed. This was proclaimed by Kerensky, who by law did not have the right to do so, so declaring Russia a Republic can safely be called illegal. Only the Constituent Assembly had the authority to make such a declaration. The fall of the Russian Empire is closely connected with the history of its last emperor, Nicholas 2. This emperor had all the qualities of a worthy person, but had an indecisive character. It was because of this that the riots occurred in the country that cost Nicholas himself 2 lives, and the Russian Empire - existence. Nicholas 2 failed to severely suppress the revolutionary and terrorist activities of the Bolsheviks in the country. True, there were objective reasons for this. Chief among which, the First World War, in which the Russian Empire was involved and exhausted in it. The Russian Empire was replaced by a new type of state structure of the country - the USSR.

Alexander II (1856-1881) - the son of Nicholas I. Zhukovsky (poet) was the tutor of Alexander II.

Reforms:

1) 1852 - the creation of the Council of Ministers (legislated in 1861).

2) Reform to abolish serfdom:

Stage 1 - the creation of a secret committee in 1857.

Stage 2 - the creation of the provincial committee to improve the life of the landlord peasants (1857).

Stage 3 - the creation in 1858 of the main committee for peasant affairs instead of the secret one.

Stage 4 - 1859 under the main committee for the establishment of editorial commissions.

Chairman Rostovtsev. Processed reforms for the provinces, resolved issues with the land.

Stage 5 - 1860 - Projects summarized in the commissions are transferred to the main committee.

Approval of the draft peasant reform of the state. council on February 17, 1861. February 19, 1861 - signing by Alexander II.

The results of the reform to abolish serfdom:

- peasants received personal freedom

The system of punishments has not been abolished

Remaining head tax

The land remained the property of the landlords, the peasants received allotments for use and had to buy the land.

4 conditions for the release of peasants:

Peasants pay 20% of the cost of land, 80% is compensated by the state, giving a loan for 49 years at 6% per annum. Unable to pay the cost, they became temporarily obliged. This was abolished in 1881.

1862- the beginning of the publication of the state. budget.

1863- the abolition of the most severe punishments. The university reform was carried out.

1864 Zemstvo and judicial reform. All estate zemstvo administration has been introduced. The court also became all-class (the laws are the same for everyone, world courts appeared, prosecutors, lawyers appeared, the court became public, etc.).

1865- reduction of censorship.

1870- city position (creation of city government).

1874 - Military reform (ideologist Milyutin). The transition from recruitment kits to universal military service.

The value of transformations.

Were upgraded:

Economy

Education

Social build and so on.

All transformations were based on the all-estate, separation of powers, limiting the influence of the nobility.

Foreign policy of the second half of the 19th–beginning of the 20th century: the Crimean War (1853–1856), Russian-Turkish (1877–1878) and Russian-Japanese (1904–1905) wars.

Crimean War 1853–1856 years was caused by the rivalry between Russia and the leading European powers in the Middle East.

Initially, Russia began to fight with Turkey for control of the Black Sea straits and influence in the Balkans. The Russian army started the war very successfully. In November, with the efforts Nakhimov The Russian fleet defeated the Turkish one Sinop battle. This event gave rise to the intervention of France and England in the war, under the pretext of protecting Turkish interests. France and England did not want the strengthening of the Russian state.

In 1854 these are strange officially declared war Russian Empire. The main hostilities of the Crimean War unfolded in the Crimea. The allies landed in Yevpatoriya, and launched an attack on the naval base - Sevastopol. The defense of the city was led by outstanding Russian naval commanders. Kornilov and Nakhimov. Under their command, the city, poorly protected from the land, was turned into a real fortress. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, the defenders of the city left Sevastopol. Russian troops managed to take the Turkish fortress of Kars. After this event, peace negotiations began. Peace was signed in Paris, in 1856. The Paris peace deprived Russia of the opportunity to have a fleet on the Black Sea, the country also lost part of Bessarabia, the mouth of the Danube, and lost the right to patronage over Serbia.

The Crimean War became a kind of catalyst for further reforms in the Russian Empire and innovative transformations.

The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 is a war between the Russian Empire and its allied Balkan states on the one hand and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It was caused by the rise of national consciousness in the Balkans. The cruelty with which the April Uprising was crushed in Bulgaria aroused sympathy for the position of the Christians of the Ottoman Empire in Europe and especially in Russia. Attempts to improve the position of Christians by peaceful means were frustrated by the stubborn unwillingness of the Turks to make concessions to Europe, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey.
In the course of the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force Osman Pasha's best Turkish army to surrender at Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which fixed the return of the southern part of Bessarabia to Russia and the annexation of Kars, Ardagan and Batumi. The statehood of Bulgaria was restored (it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) as a vassal Principality of Bulgaria; the territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and the Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

At the end of the Crimean War, the contradictions in the Balkans and in the Mediterranean region aggravated. The Russian Empire was concerned about the weak security of the Black Sea borders and the inability to defend its political interests in the territories and straits of the Eastern Mediterranean.
The national liberation movement of the southern Slavs on the Balkan Peninsula grew with renewed vigor, which found mass support in the public, political and cultural circles of Russia. It became especially tangible after the brutal suppression of the April uprising in Bulgaria by the Turks.
The conflict broke out with renewed vigor in July 1876, when Serbia and Montenegro demanded an end to the massacres in Bosnia. But these demands were expectedly rejected by the Turkish government, in response to which both states declared war on Turkey. Almost immediately, more than 5 thousand Russian soldiers and officers voluntarily joined the ranks of the Serbian army. A huge number of domestic doctors, among whom were such medical authorities as S.P. Botkin, N.V. Sklifosovsky, worked in hospitals and hospitals in Serbia.
In a rather tense world situation, Russia tried to the last not to enter into open conflict with the Turkish authorities, and only Turkey's refusal to guarantee the rights of the Christian population was followed by a declaration of war.
April 12, 1877 On the day of the declaration of war, the troops of the Russian Empire crossed the Romanian border towards the Danube. In fact, without serious resistance from the Turkish troops, by July 7, the Shipka Pass was occupied. In response, the Ottoman Empire abandoned a large military group under the command of Suleiman Pasha. Here one of the most heroic moments of the war unfolded - the defense of the Shipka Pass, so strategically important for the Russian troops. In the most difficult conditions, the Russian army repulsed the attacks of superior enemy forces.
But the Turks managed to concentrate large forces in the fortress city of Plevna, which was a strategic object, as it was located at the intersection of important routes. After long and bloody battles in November 1877. Plevna fell, and this was a turning point in the course of the war. And already on December 3, the troops under the command of I.V. Gurko, having overcome the difficult participants in the mountainous terrain, entered Sofia. At the same time, troops under the command of F.F. Radetsky went to the fortified camp of the Turks Sheinovo, where the largest battle of the war took place, in which the enemy was defeated and the Russian troops approached Constantinople.
Events also developed successfully in the Transcaucasian military campaign. By the beginning of May 1877, the Russian army stormed the fortress of Kare and Ardagan. Realizing that this threatens with complete collapse, the Turkish authorities proceeded to peace negotiations.
Negotiations with Turkey were completed on February 19, 1878. near Constantinople in the small town of San Stefano and in history received the same name. Under the terms of this agreement, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro became completely independent states. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality, and Russia regained Southern Bessarabia.

In the 70-80s pp. XVIII Art. Russia was inferior in terms of development to the advanced European states, but new production relations were already forming in the country's feudal economy. Agriculture remained the main branch of the economy, which expanded during this period, primarily due to the development of land in the south, in the Middle and Lower Volga regions, Siberia, the southern part of the black earth center, Sloboda and Southern Ukraine, Ciscaucasia. The basis of agriculture, as before, was Trypillia. The agrotechnical level was low and routine. More than 90% of the country's population were peasants, mostly landlords.

In the 18th century noble landownership grew: 800 thousand so-called revision souls were distributed to the landowners, serfdom was strengthened and duties increased. However, capitalist relations of production gradually penetrated into agriculture: the peasants were transferred to a cash quitrent, vіdhіdnitstvo, there were manufactories belonging to the peasants.

The main brake on the development of agriculture was the dominance of serf relations.

In industry, manufactories were formed by expanding small commodity production and subordinating small commodity producers to buyers. Depending on the form of ownership, there were noble, merchant and peasant manufactories.

at the end of the century, Russia took the first place in Europe in the production and export of metallurgy products. Shipbuilding was an important industry. Shipyards operated in St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Voronezh, Kazan. Moscow and St. Petersburg were the centers of light industry. Some branches of light industry were formed in areas with a sufficient amount of raw materials: linen and sailing manufactories were created in Yaroslavl, near Kaluga, Kostroma, Voronezh, Kazan, Putivl, and the Vladimir province became the center of textile weaving. At the end of the century, there were more than 2,000 manufactories in Russia.

The total volume of foreign trade grew 5 times, while exports exceeded imports. Russia traded in grain, iron, wood, furs, and bought sugar, silk, paints, etc.

In the second half of the XVIII century. in all spheres of Russia's economic life there were not only quantitative but also qualitative changes associated with the disintegration of serfdom and the formation of capitalist production relations, the development of commodity-money relations and the destruction of natural economy.

Despite the rather dynamic development of the Russian economy, its position was not brilliant. The inefficient economic system, the increasing extravagance of the imperial court, the embezzlement of officials, the excessive costs of maintaining the army, the constant unrest of peasants and workers, and other factors led to the financial bankruptcy of Russia. The state treasury was empty, and foreign creditors refused new loans. This was one of the reasons for the palace coup of 1762.

Emperor Peter ///(1728-1762) (Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, grandson of Peter I and Charles XII) was a peculiar person and pursued a controversial domestic and foreign policy. In 1742, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna officially proclaimed him the heir to the Russian throne, and from the age of 14, Karl Ulrich (real name of Peter III) lived in Russia under the supervision of the Empress and his tutor, Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences J. Shtellin. However, they failed to educate him in the spirit of respect for Russia, its customs and traditions. Peter III remained a lifelong adherent of his idol - the Prussian king Frederick the Great and his system of government.

Empress Elizabeth did not like Peter III and tried to prevent him from governing the state. Peter III also did not have a relationship with his wife, Ekaterina Alekseevna. The disregard of the future emperor for everything Russian even forced Elizabeth to develop a plan for the transfer of the Russian throne to her grandson, Paul. However, after the death of the empress in December 1761, the Russian crown automatically passed to Peter III.

The short period of the reign of Peter III was marked by a number of important reforms in domestic policy, which to a certain extent can be considered an attempt to modernize Russia and a radical revolution in foreign policy. First of all, the emperor issued decrees in which a certain influence of legislative acts introduced in Prussia was traced. In January 1762, a decree on religious tolerance was issued. Representatives of various religious denominations, primarily schismatics, were no longer persecuted by the government, they were allowed to compactly settle in Siberia and engage in agriculture.

In February 1762, a royal decree was issued on the liquidation of the Secret Chancellery and a manifesto on the freedom of the nobility. From now on, the nobles were exempted from compulsory military and civil service. The manifesto was intended to involve the nobility in economic activities in their estates. In March, the emperor initiated a decree on the secularization of church and monastery estates.

However, these generally progressive measures of the emperor ran into dissatisfaction with the upper strata of Russian society. The decree on religious tolerance and the secularization of church estates was considered anti-Orthodox. The manifesto on the freedom of the nobility hurt the interests of the aristocrats, the middle and petty nobility. The first saw in the public service a source of enrichment and sought only their own immunity and the prohibition of the confiscation of their property. For the impoverished nobility, military service was the only source of livelihood and an opportunity to make a career. In addition, Peter III reorganized the army according to the Prussian model, introduced drill and strict discipline, disbanded the privileged part of the guard, which further set the nobility against himself.

However, most of all, Russian society was outraged by the pro-German foreign policy of Peter III. Russia participated in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), the Russian army achieved significant success in the fight against the Prussian army of Frederick the Great: in 1760, together with the Austrians, they entered Berlin. East Prussia was declared a Russian possession, and its population began to take an oath of allegiance to the Russian crown. Immediately after taking the throne, the new emperor ordered the troops of the corps of General Chernyshev to go over to the side of Frederick and turn their weapons against their former allies - the Austrians. Soon negotiations began with the king for peace, and the Russian emperor invited Frederick to draw up the terms of this agreement himself. It was signed on April 24, 1762. Russia returned to Prussia all the conquered territories and pledged to sign a defensive alliance. Peter III was preparing for war with Denmark in order to wrest the Duchy of Schleswig from it and annex it to his homeland, the Duchy of Holstein (Holstein). In Pomerania, even the Russian corps of General P. Rumyantsev was sent. The foreign policy of Russia was actually led by the ambassador of the Prussian king, Baron Goltz.

On June 28, 1762, the guards officers carried out a palace coup and elevated the wife of Peter III, Ekaterina Alekseevna, to the Russian throne, who ruled under the name of Catherine II (1762 - 1796).

Catherine II Alekseevna (Sophia-Frederick-Augusta) (1729 - 1796) - Russian Empress, wife of Emperor Peter III; after the coup of 1762. autocratic rules. During her reign, the absolute monarchy was strengthened, the estate privileges of the nobility were formed, the oppression of the peasant masses intensified (the Pugachev uprising of 1773-1775pp.), An active foreign policy was pursued aimed at protecting Russia from Turkish-Crimean aggression and the threat of Sweden in the Baltic, neutralizing Austria and Prussia for due to forced concessions in resolving the issue of Poland, active opposition to England (frank support was provided for the American Revolution and the new state - the United States). As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774,1787-1791) and the three divisions of the Commonwealth (1772, 1793,1795), the Russian Empire captured most of the Ukrainian lands (except Galicia, Bukovina and Transcarpathia). Catherine II pursued a policy aimed at the final elimination of the autonomy of Ukraine: in 1764, the hetmanship was abolished, in 1765. the Cossack regiments in Slobozhanshchina were disbanded, in 1775. The Zaporozhian Sich was finally destroyed, in 1782. in the Hetmanate, the regimental and hundred administration was liquidated and division into 3 viceroys was introduced, in 1788 the Cossack regiments on the Left Bank were disbanded and serfdom was legally introduced. In 1785, Catherine II legally formalized the rights and privileges of the Russian nobility and equated the Ukrainian Cossack sergeant-major to him, assigning her land holdings. There was an intensive development of the economy (industry, trade). In the field of culture and education, the reign of Catherine II was reflected in an attempt to create an education system, the development of literature, art and architecture, followed by the Russification of the non-Russian outskirts of the empire.

On June 29, Peter III abdicated the throne and was exiled to n. Ropsha, near Petersburg. A few days later, the former emperor was killed. The new empress came to power with the help of the nobility, and therefore all her domestic and foreign policy was aimed at satisfying their interests.

Second half of the 18th century. characterized by the further development of absolutism in the Russian Empire. The internal policy of the Russian autocracy of this period was called the policy of enlightened absolutism.

Relying on the nobility, Catherine II took care of strengthening the autocracy and maintaining the inviolability of the feudal-serf system. The pinnacle of noble privileges was the manifesto "On the granting of liberties and freedom to all Russian nobility." The nobility was exempted from compulsory public service, the inviolability of their property was legally fixed. This manifesto extended the title of nobility to the German barons of the Baltic states, the Ukrainian Cossack elders, and others.

Catherine II also issued a decree dividing the Senate into six departments with different functions, which weakened its influence as a state body, and created a personal office - "Her Majesty's Cabinet", concentrating all executive power in her hands. A reform of local government bodies was carried out (all local power was concentrated with the governor), in Central Russia and Left-Bank Ukraine - the secularization of monastic lands. The most striking embodiment of the policy of enlightened absolutism was the convening of the Legislative Commission (a meeting of representatives of the estates), one of the tasks of which was to replace the obsolete Code of 1649.

In response to the empress's call to take part in the creation of new legislation, the deputies brought with them thousands of orders from their constituents, during the discussion of which sharp contradictions between the estates were revealed. The nobles demanded the expansion of their privileges, an increase in landownership at the expense of peasant allotments, tougher punishment for peasants for misconduct, and the like. The merchants sought freedom of entrepreneurial activity, protection from the state against competition from foreign producers, permission to buy serfs for factories, and the like. Peasant deputies asked to reduce burdensome duties and introduce a single poll tax, to allow them to engage in crafts, trade and entrepreneurial activities. Some deputies raised the issue of the need to eliminate serfdom, which forced Catherine II to stop the work of the Commission and complete the formation of the estate system in Russia.

First of all, the peasants finally lost their personal freedom and fell into complete dependence on the landlords, became their private property. The empress spread serfdom in two ways: she gave the peasants to the nobles for faithful service (during her reign, she distributed 400 thousand state peasants) and by legislative acts. By a decree of 1763, peasants were forbidden to leave their landowners without special permission. In the same year, a new legislative act was issued, according to which, for disobedience to the landowners, the peasants were subjected to corporal punishment and were to cover the losses caused by them to the landowners. U1765r. the landlords received the right to exile recalcitrant peasants to hard labor in Siberia without trial. Two years later, a new imperial decree forbade the peasants to file complaints against the landowners with government bodies. In this way the landowners gradually changed from landowners to owners of the people and police stewards of their peasants.

In the 18th century The Peasants' War of 1773-1775 broke out. headed by Emelyan Pugachev. It began as a protest against the strengthening of serfdom and the restriction (among the Cossacks) of freedoms.

Emelyan Pugachev (1744-1775) - Don Cossack, leader of the Peasants' War of 1773-1775, in which he acted under the name of Emperor Peter III. Member of the Seven Years' War, campaigns under the command of A. Suvorov in Poland, the Russian-Turkish war of 1768 - 1774rr. For courage he received the first Cossack officer rank of cornet. In 1771 he was elected ataman of the Terek Cossack army. He was repeatedly arrested for participating in anti-government protests. U1773r. organized a Cossack uprising that grew into a Peasant War.

The war covered a huge territory - the Southern and Middle Urals, Western Siberia, Bashkir), the Perm Territory, the Kama region, the Volga region and the Don. Peasants, Cossacks, philistines, "working people" (workers of private and state-owned manufactories and factories) took an active part in it. During the war, thousands of peasants and nobles died, the economy of these regions was ruined and paralyzed.

The war began in the Urals from the actions of the Yaїtsky Cossacks. Since the beginning of the XVIII century. they were in the public service and defended the southern and eastern borders of Russia, were on state financial support and enjoyed the right to elect their atamans and foremen. The basis of their economic activity was fishing, hunting and cattle breeding. However, gradually the foreman and atamans took possession of the best fishing plots, hayfields and pastures, disposed of cash payments and forced the Cossacks to work on their farms.

The abuses of the Cossack foreman, the government decree on the participation of the Cossacks in the war with Turkey caused Cossack unrest, which was suppressed by government troops. In 1772, regular army units occupied the Yaitsky town and arrested 86 of the most active and recalcitrant Cossacks, while others took refuge in distant farms.

At the end of 1772, V. Pugachev arrived on Yaik. He declared himself Emperor Peter III, who did not die and was able to escape, and enlisted the support of the Cossacks in the struggle for their rights. In 1773, the "tsar-father" addressed the people with a manifesto in which he promised the peasants land and freedom, and the Cossacks money and food allowance. Pugachev's detachments were constantly growing. In autumn, the rebels defeated small army units and surrounded the fortress of Orenburg. At the end of the year, the entire Orenburg Territory, the Southern Urals and the Trans-Urals were engulfed in an uprising. The Bashkirs, led by Salavat Yulaev, rose to revolt. their detachments captured several fortresses and approached metro Ufa. Peasants and workers of the Ural factories joined Pugachev. At the beginning of 1774, the rebel army numbered almost 30 thousand people and 100 guns. It was divided into main units. The general leadership of the uprising was carried out by the Military Collegium headed by A. Pugachev.

A regular army under the command of General A. Bibikov was sent against the rebels, which defeated the rebels near Orenburg, forcing them to lift the siege of the fortress. Soon the rebel detachments near Ufa and in the battle near the Sakmarsky town were also defeated. Here, the troops of General D. Golitsyn captured 1,500 people, among whom were the leaders of the rebels. Pugachev with a detachment of 500 people was forced to flee to the Urals.

In the Southern Urals, new detachments of rebels joined Pugachev, and in May 1774 they numbered 5 thousand people. In May - June, the peasant army captured the strong fortresses of Troitskaya and Osa and went to Kazan. It grew to 20 thousand people, but was poorly armed. On July 12, Pugachev captured Kazan, which was burned during the assault. Soon the rebels were defeated by government troops and O. Pugachev with the remnants of his army went to Nizhny Novgorod. However, as the rebel army moved away from Bashkira, the Bashkir cavalry left, and the remoteness of the Ural factories deprived it of guns. In the end, in the summer of 1774, Russia signed peace with Turkey and a large regular army (eight infantry regiments, eight cavalry regiments, five Cossack regiments, etc.) was equipped against the rebels, headed by A. Suvorov.

On the right bank of the Volga, Pugachev decided to go to Moscow not through the well-fortified Nizhny Novgorod, but through Saratov. On August 6, the rebels captured the city and brutally cracked down on its defenders - dozens of nobles were drowned in the Volga. Pursued by government troops, the rebel army went to Tsaritsyn. Pugachev hoped that when he captured the city, he would enlist the support of the Don Cossacks, spend the winter in the Kuban and make a new campaign against Moscow in the spring. On August 24, near Tsaritsyn, the decisive battle of the rebels with government troops took place, in which Pugachev suffered a final defeat. He lost 2 thousand people killed, and 6 thousand rebels were captured. With a detachment of 160 Cossacks, Pugachev tried to break through to the Caspian Sea, but the Cossacks conspired and handed him over to government officials. On January 10, 1775, Pugachev was executed in Moscow on Bolotnaya Square.

The result of the war was the centralization of state administration and the strengthening of the nobility - the pillars of the autocracy. In 1775, an administrative reform was carried out, according to which Russia was divided into 50 provinces, which in turn were divided into counties. In the provinces, power belonged to the governor, and in the counties and county towns - to the captain and governor. Financial management was centralized, class courts were created. In 1785, the so-called Letters of Complaint to the nobility and cities were issued. The nobles were allowed to create their own corporate bodies (assemblies of the nobility), according to which the peasants with their real estate were legally fixed. The nobles were exempted from taxes, duties, corporal punishment, the obligation to perform military and public service, and so on. City councils and police and economic bodies were created in the cities, and the townspeople were divided into six categories according to the property qualification. New imperial decrees further strengthened serfdom: in 1783, the peasants of the Left-Bank Ukraine were finally banned from unauthorized transfer to other places of residence. In 1792, the government restored the right to sell landless peasants at auction for landlord debts.

The internal policy of tsarism at the end of the 18th century. characterized by a desire to strengthen the dominance of the nobility and the top of the merchant class. Frightened by the fall of absolutism in France and peasant uprisings, the new Russian autocrat Paul I (1796-1801) made attempts to overcome internal political contradictions with the help of a military-bureaucratic dictatorship. During the four years of his reign, more than 2,000 legislative acts were issued, most of which were aimed at strengthening the absolute power of the monarch and the state apparatus. The nobility lost their liberties, guaranteed by the acts of Catherine II; the right of self-government was taken away from the cities; censorship was introduced and private printing houses were closed; subjects of the Russian Empire were forbidden to travel abroad and import foreign books; the Russian army was reorganized, in which new regulations were introduced and the command and control system was modernized. At the same time, the position of the Orthodox clergy improved; state peasants received self-government in the country, freedom of religion was introduced; the compulsory work of a serf for a landowner was limited to three days a week, and the landowner could be punished for cruel treatment of peasants and the like. The metropolitan nobility, corrupted by privileges during the reign of Catherine II, came out against the despotism of Paul I. It made a new coup d'état and Pavel I was killed. His son Alexander became the new emperor of Russia.

Foreign policy and unprecedented military activity of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. breathed in the desire of the nobility to seize new territories and markets - to seize the Crimea, go to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and the Caucasus Range, annex Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus to Russia. This inevitably led to a clash with the Ottoman Empire and Poland, so it was necessary to find powerful allies. In 1764, Russia signed an allied treaty with Prussia. Both countries guaranteed the inviolability of the Polish constitution and the return of so-called religious dissidents (that is, those who did not belong to the Catholic denomination) of their rights. Austria, dissatisfied with the interference of Russia and Prussia in Polish affairs, decided to split the Russian-Prussian alliance and began to push Turkey to war with Russia.

In the Right-Bank Ukraine, the Haidamak uprising broke out - Koliyivshchyna. The Gaidamaks hoped for the support of the Russian government, which sent regular troops to Ukraine. To fight against the Haidamaks and Russians, the Polish gentry created in 1768 the Confederation of Bars, which turned to Turkey for help. The Government of the Porte was in no hurry to commit itself to 8 Poles. At the same time, the Haidamak detachments attacked the border town of Balta on Turkish territory. This was the reason for Turkey to put forward a demand to Russia to punish the Gaidamaks and compensate for the losses. Russian troops suppressed the Haidamak uprising, but this did not satisfy Turkey. In October 1768, the Russian ambassador was arrested in Istanbul and both countries began to prepare for war.

The main theater of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. became the territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester. The Russian army approached the Turkish fortress Khotyn, where they defeated the 80-thousandth Turkish army, besieged the fortress and captured it by storm in September. The Turkish army left Moldova, part of Wallachia and retreated to the Danube. The following year, the 1st Russian Army under the command of General A. Rumyantsev set out from Khotyn to the south and in the summer defeated the Turkish-Tatar troops in the Ryabaya Mogila tract, on the Larga River. The main forces of the Turkish army (150 thousand people) took a position on the city of Cahul. On July 21, 1770, the Russian army of A. Rumyantsev defeated the Turks, who lost 20 thousand people. The Russian fleet made the transition from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean and on June 26 destroyed the Turkish squadrons in the Chesme Bay.

Russia and Turkey began negotiations and soon signed a truce. However, after the intervention of Austria, Prussia and France "preoccupied with Russian victories, hostilities resumed. In the campaign of 1773, Russian troops inflicted several defeats on the Turkish army. 1774 became decisive. Battle of Kozludzhi Turkey sued for peace.

According to the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace of 1774, Russia received a large territory in the Lower Dnieper and the Bug region, the Crimea and Kuban became independent from Turkey. The port was forced to pay Russia 4.5 million rubles as compensation for military losses.

In April 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto in which she declared that the Crimea, the Taman Peninsula and "the entire Kuban side were taken under the power of the All-Russian." In the summer of the same year, the construction of the Sevastopol metro station, the base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, began in Crimea. In order to strengthen the situation in Transcaucasia, which was subjected to constant attacks from Turkey and Persia, in 1783 Russia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk with Eastern Georgia. The Georgian king Erekle II, like the Crimean khan, recognized himself as a vassal of Russia.

Preparing for the inevitable war with Turkey, Russia entered into an alliance with Austria, agreeing to the seizure of the Danube lands up to the Adriatic Sea, Vakhaliya, Serbia, Bosnia, etc.

In August 1787, Turkey delivered an ultimatum to Russia: return the Crimea, renounce the treaty with Georgia and the previous Russian-Turkish treaties. On August 12, Turkey declared war on Rosa. The international situation for Russia was unfavorable - its relations with Sweden worsened (the next year it began hostilities against Russia), Prussia and England took an anti-Russian position.

The beginning of the war was unsuccessful for Russia. In September 1787, during a strong storm near Cape Kaliyakri, the Russian Black Sea squadron was killed. The following year, the army of Field Marshal G. Potemkin surrounded the Ochakov fortress and was able to capture it only at the end of the year. In 1789 the Russian army acted jointly with the Austrians. From the very beginning, the Turks had the initiative. In July they attempted to split the Allied armies near Focsana, but failed. In autumn, the Russian troops of 0. Suvorov and the Austrian army of Prince Coburg defeated the main Turkish forces in the battle on the Rimnik river. In 1790, Russia's ally Austria withdrew from the war and, through the mediation of England and Prussia, began peace negotiations with Turkey. However, even under such conditions, Russian troops captured the Turkish fortresses of Kiliya, Tulcha and Isakcha in the lower reaches of the Danube and surrounded the fortress of Izmail. The Russian Black Sea squadron of Admiral F. Ushakov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Kerch Strait and near Tendra Island. The position of Turkey became hopeless after the Russian troops under the command of A. Suvorov stormed the fortress of Izmail on December 11, 1790.

After the Peace of Jassy in 1791, the entire northern coast of the Black Sea was assigned to Russia. The new border between Russia and Turkey was supposed to pass in the southwest along the river. Dniester. Turkey renounced claims to the Crimea and Georgia.

Relations between Russia and Sweden were tense throughout the 18th century. The Swedish king Gustav III dreamed of returning the territories lost at the beginning of the century during the Northern War (1700-1725) in the Baltic states. Russia has repeatedly joined the opponents of Sweden. So, in 1764, the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry G. Panin came up with the idea of ​​an alliance of Prussia, Russia and Denmark against Austria and France. As a "passive" member of the union, it was planned to involve Sweden. This political combination was seen in Stockholm as an attempt by Russia to increase its influence in northern Europe. The successes of the Russians in the fight against the Turkish Empire worried the monarchs of Europe, and England and Prussia began to push Sweden to war with Russia.

Sweden delivered an ultimatum to Russia demanding the return of all territories that belonged to Sweden before the Northern War, abandon the Crimean Peninsula, and disarm the Russian fleet in the Baltic. This led to the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790. On June 21, 1788, Swedish troops numbering up to 40 thousand people crossed the Russian border and began shelling the Russian garrison of the Neishlot fortress in Finland. The main forces of the Russian army fought in the South against the Turkish army, so only a 20,000-strong corps was put up against the Swedes. However, the main events of the war unfolded at sea.

The first battle of the naval squadrons of the warring states took place in July 1788 near the island of Gogland. Having lost one ship, the Swedes were forced to retreat to the bay of Sveaborg. In August of the following year, the Russian rowing flotilla in the Gulf of Finland defeated the Swedish fleet. Sea communications, which provided the Swedish land army, were blocked. The Russian army drove the Swedes out of Finland. In the summer of 1790, the Swedes finally managed to defeat the Russian fleet, but this did not change the general balance of forces in the theater of war, which was unfavorable for Sweden. Since August 1790, the Treaty of Verelsky was signed in Finland, which restored the pre-war borders between the two states.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia actively intervened in the partitions of Poland, whose internal political situation was extremely difficult. Various noble political factions competed for power. Royal power was limited to the gentry Sejm, where each gentry, using the right of "liberum veto" (I do not allow), could block the adoption of a decision that was unfavorable for him. The weakening of centralized power and the struggle of political groups decided to take advantage of the neighboring states - Austria, Prussia and Russia. The reason for interference in the internal affairs of Poland was the situation of religious dissidents (Orthodox, Protestants, etc.). Catholicism in Poland was the state religion, and representatives of other religious denominations were persecuted by the Catholic Church: churches were closed and priests were forbidden to perform religious rites, forced Catholicization took place. The attempts of Russia and Prussia to soften religious oppression were resisted by the magnates and gentry, who formed the most diverse confederations and resorted to aggressive actions against dissidents.

Confederation - a meeting of representatives of the gentry and the government, who were endowed with full power. Unlike the Diet, decisions were made by majority vote.

In 1763, the Polish king August III died and a struggle began between noble groups that tried to elevate their pretenders to the throne. The foreign policy factor played an important role in the choice of the Polish king: if the son of Augustus PI of the Saxon elector was elected king, Poland fell into the sphere of influence of Austria, which did not suit Russia and Prussia. The best candidate for Catherine II was Stanislav Poniatowski, who was nominated by the party led by the princes Czartoryski. Having supported its pretender, Russia planned to seize part of the Polish lands and move the Russian border to the Western Dvina. The Prussian king Frederick the Great hoped to seize part of the northern Polish lands.

Having coordinated its actions with Prussia, Russia sent troops to the territory of Poland and helped S. Poniatowski get the throne. In 1768, a Russian-Polish treaty was signed, which strengthened Russian influence in Poland and guaranteed political and religious rights to dissidents. Dissatisfied with this situation, the gentry created an anti-Russian confederation in the city of Bar. Russian troops were brought into Poland under the command of A. Suvorov, who inflicted defeat on the troops of the Confederates. Fearing that Russia would be able to finally capture the Polish lands, in 1770 Prussia captured Pomerania, and Austria - Galicia. In 1772, in St. Petersburg, Russia, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement on the division of Poland. Russia captured Eastern Belarus and the Polish part of the Baltic states (Dvinsk and Daugavpils), Prussia - Pomerania and Poznan, Austria - Galicia. Poland has lost more than 200 thousand square meters. km of territory.

Foreign intervention led to a patriotic upsurge in Poland, which forced the king to change his attitude towards an alliance with Russia. Poland entered into a new alliance with Prussia, hoping with her help to carry out reforms and strengthen public administration. Taking advantage of the fact that Russia was at war with Turkey, the Polish patriots developed a new constitution and in May 1791 adopted it at the Sejm.

Dissatisfied with the reorientation of Poland's foreign policy, Russia supported the Polish party of supporters of the old state system, headed by Count F. Potocki, and put forward a demand to the Polish government to abolish the Constitution of 1791, threatening to break off diplomatic relations. In May 1792, a 100,000-strong Russian army entered Poland. Polish troops under the command of General T. Kosciuszko tried to stop them, but were defeated. Russian troops captured Warsaw, and the Prussian army captured the cities of Poznan, Torun and Danzig.

Tadeusz Kosciuszko (Kosciuszko) (1746-1817) - leader of the uprising of 1794 in Poland, an outstanding politician, general, organizer of the struggle of the Polish people for independence. He studied at the Warsaw Cadet School, studied engineering in Germany, Italy and France. Member of the War of Independence in North America (1775-1783). Brigadier General of the American Army. Author of the Pananet Universal 1794. on the liberation of Polish peasants from serfdom. The wounded was captured by the tsarist troops and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg. Released in 1796. Died in Switzerland.

In May 1793, Russia and Prussia announced the second division of Poland. Right-bank Ukraine went to Russia. At the beginning of 1794, Polish patriots led by T. Kosciuszk rebelled against the Russians in Krakow. The rebels defeated the troops of A. Tormasov and expelled the Russians from Warsaw, the uprising became nationwide. T. Kosciuszko's universals about the reduction of corvee and the abolition of serfdom contributed to the involvement of the peasants in the liberation war. However, in the fall, the poorly armed rebels were defeated by the Russian troops of A. Suvorov, who again captured Warsaw. T. Kosciuszko was captured and imprisoned in St. Petersburg. King S. Poniatowski renounced the Polish throne.

As a result of the third partition of Poland in 1795, its independence was finally eliminated. Russia received Western Belarus,

Western Volyn, Lithuania and Courland, Austria - Krakow, Sandomierz and Lublin regions, and Prussia - the rest of the land with Warsaw. As a result of the divisions of Poland, the territory of Russia expanded significantly - it became the largest empire in Europe.

In addition to the struggle for influence in Central Europe, the desire to resolve the Middle East issue, one of the important principles of the foreign policy of tsarist Russia was the security-monarchist principle. Russia severed diplomatic and economic ties with revolutionary France, organized a landing of troops in Italy, and contributed to the Italian and Swiss campaigns led by A. Suvorov against revolutionary France.

The struggle of noble groups for power after Peter I. Catherine I.

From the second quarter of the 18th century, after the death of Peter I, Russia entered a special period called the era of palace coups. This period was characterized by a sharp struggle for power of noble groups, a change of kings, and rearrangements in the ruling structures. Assessing this period, V.O. Klyuchevsky noted that for 37 years after the death of Peter before the accession of Catherine II, the throne was occupied by six monarchs who received the throne as a result of complex palace intrigues or coups. Two of them - Ivan Antonovich and Peter III were overthrown by force and killed. A number of historians define the middle of the 18th century as the era of temporary workers, a period of political instability. In particular, the well-known researcher of this time N.Ya. Eidelman considered palace coups as a peculiar reaction of the nobility to a sharp increase in the independence of the state under Peter I, as a "guards" amendment to autocracy. “Historical experience has shown,” he writes, referring to the “unbridledness” of Petrine absolutism, that such an enormous concentration of power is dangerous both for the bearer and for the ruling class.” Yes, and V.O. Klyuchevsky also associated the onset of political instability after the death of Peter I with the autocracy of the latter, who decided to break the traditional order of succession to the throne. By the charter of February 5, 1722, the autocrat was granted the right to appoint his own successor at his own request. “Rarely did autocracy punish itself so cruelly as in the person of Peter I with this law of February 5,” Klyuchevsky concluded.

Peter I did not have time to appoint an heir: the throne, according to Klyuchevsky, turned out to be left to chance and became his toy. It was not the law that determined who would sit on the throne, but the guard, which was the dominant force during this period. It was she who became the decisive force in determining the policy of power. The positions of the guard itself were formed by the fighting palace groups. The position of the colonels of the Guards largely depended on who would occupy the throne in St. Petersburg. The Guard actively intervened in dynastic disputes, dictating their terms.

The death of Peter I and the absence of the heir to the throne named by the sovereign sharply aggravated the enmity of the groups that existed at the court. Each of them would like to see their protege, but it was a struggle not only for the personality of the future sovereign. It was a struggle for the predominance of one political line or another.

Representatives of the old aristocracy, among whom the leading role was played by the Golitsyns, Dolgoruky and the princes Sheremetev and Repnin who joined them, wanted to see the young son of Tsarevich Alexei on the throne of the grandson of Peter I.

The new “nobility”, which advanced and strengthened its position under Peter I, headed by A.D. Menshikov, the so-called "chicks of Petrov's nest", wished for the accession of the wife of Peter I, Ekaterina Alekseevna. They considered the fact that in May 1724 in the main temple of Russia - the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin - the coronation ceremony of the wife of the first Russian emperor, as an independent reigning person, to be an important argument in their favor. The meaning of this ceremony was reduced to the possibility of Catherine taking the throne in the event of the death of the current sovereign. The efforts of A.D. Menshikov and his supporters were supported by the guards.

During a meeting in one of the palace rooms, Count Tolstoy's speech in favor of Catherine was accompanied by a noisy demand from the guards to enthrone her.

The accession of Catherine I meant, first of all, the strengthening of the power of A.D. Menshikov. Already in March 1725, the Saxon-Polish envoy wrote: "Menshikov is turning everyone around." He was forgiven debts, cash waste. The favorite, who dreamed of power, really got it, having a huge influence on the empress.

To improve the administration of the state: the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest state body that limited the power of the Senate. Most of the members of the council were people from the inner circle of Peter I, and only Prince D.M. Golitsyn belonged to the old nobility.

It should be noted that as Catherine I reigned, the role of the Supreme Council invariably increased, since the empress, without her crowned spouse, turned out to be a very mediocre ruler who understood little about state power. Although Ekaterina Alekseevna was considered the chairman of the Council, the three most influential figures were involved in the affairs: A.D. Menshikov, G.I. Golovkin and A.I. Osterman. The empress herself preferred to spend more time in a variety of entertainment. Unprecedented luxury, festivities, feasts, masquerades became a constant phenomenon of the royal court. The French ambassador wrote in his reports: "The queen continues to indulge in pleasures with great excess to such an extent that she does not even notice how it harms her health." However, it should be borne in mind that for all the idleness of this time, attempts were nevertheless made to continue the era of transformation. This was also required by the state of the country. Russia fought for 20 years during the Northern War, which ended shortly before the death of Peter I. In addition, a series of lean years, impoverishment of the population, and epidemics undermined the internal position of the Russian state.

A.D. tried to implement a program of certain transformations. Menshikov, who actually ruled Russia, but he lacked neither the scale nor the depth of the state thinking of Peter I. His plans to change the tax policy, reduce the cost of the state administrative apparatus did not lead to any positive results. In addition, enmity, rivalry, intolerance towards each other began in the "Peter's nest" itself. Yesterday's allies became enemies. Almost soon after the death of Peter I, P.I. Yaguzhinsky ran in a rage to the coffin of the great emperor to pour out his complaints about Menshikov. And Count P.A. Tolstoy, who tried to reason with His Serene Highness Prince A.D. Menshikov, was exiled to Solovki. The same fate befell another Petrine associate, I.I. Buturlin.

The dynastic question remained unresolved in Russia as before. For Menshikov and his supporters, he was of great importance, since Catherine's health deteriorated sharply.

As a result of secret negotiations and intrigues on the part of various groups, a compromise was reached: 11-year-old Peter Alekseevich, the grandson of Peter I, was declared the heir to the throne under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council, in which A.D. played a great role. Menshikov. At the same time, it was not difficult for the Most Serene Prince to obtain the consent of the Empress for the marriage of his daughter Maria with Peter II. All this was officially confirmed in a special "testament" - a will that determined the legacy of the throne.

In May 1727, Catherine I died, and the young Peter II (1727-1730) was on the throne. HELL. Menshikov managed to very quickly become the sole guardian of both the boy-sovereign and the state as a whole. At the same time, the solemn betrothal of the young emperor to 16-year-old Maria Menshikova took place.

However, the Most Serene Prince could not consolidate the advantages received for himself. When he fell seriously ill, his opponents Osterman and Dolgoruky took advantage of this. During the five months of the prince's illness, they managed to win Peter II over to their side, encouraging his passion for entertainment, feasting, hunting, but not for study and education.

In the fate of A.D. Menshikov there is a sharp turn. The order of the Supreme Privy Council on house arrest is announced to him, and then the emperor's decree on depriving him of his ranks, awards, status and exile. In September 1727, "The Serene One" was sent with his family to Siberia in the Berezov fortress. There he did not live long and died in November 1729. According to Feofan Prokopovich, "this pygmy colossus, abandoned by happiness, which brought him to intoxication, fell with a great noise." In essence, this was also a kind of palace coup with a traditional mechanism of action.

The fall of Menshikov opened the way to power for new temporary favorites. Four of the Dolgoruky family received high positions and titles, becoming members of the Supreme Privy Council. At the same time, they did everything possible to distract the young Peter from the desire to delve into state affairs. The English ambassador Claudius Rondo wrote in his report: “There is not a single person near the sovereign capable of inspiring him with the proper, necessary information on public administration, not the slightest share of his leisure time is devoted to improving him in the knowledge of Civil or military discipline.”

In an effort to increase their influence on Peter II, the Dolgoruky went along the path of Menshikov, deciding to marry him to the beautiful 17-year-old Catherine - the daughter of Alexei Grigorievich Dolgoruky. In November 1729, the betrothal took place, and on January 19, 1730, the wedding of the young emperor and Catherine Dolgoruky was scheduled.

However, the wedding was not destined to take place. On the night of January 19, Peter II died. This tragic event was preceded by a cold, received by the sovereign at the Water Consecration and Epiphany parade, held in severe frost in January 1730. Not distinguished by good health, exhausted by an indecent way of life, Pyotr Alekseevich not only caught a cold, but also received a serious illness - smallpox, which he could no longer survive.

To the begining

2. Palace coups of 30-40 years of the XVIII century Strengthening autocratic power.

These events led to a new dynastic crisis in Russia. The Romanov dynasty ended in the male line, and the issue of a new emperor was to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council, which changed quite a lot, replenished with representatives of the old feudal aristocracy. Of its 8 members, 5 were representatives of the Dolgoruky and Golitsyn families, and their influence was almost decisive. Therefore, from the candidates for the throne, the descendants of the half-brother of Peter I, Ivan, excelled. At that time, the only pretender to the throne through the line of Peter I himself, daughter Elizabeth, was rejected. As a result of disputes, intrigues, behind-the-scenes negotiations, the Dowager Duchess of Courland Anna Ivanovna was invited to the Russian throne.

Anna Ivanovna was the middle daughter of Ivan Alekseevich. Seventeen-year-old Anna was married off by her august uncle Peter I to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Courland. At the same time, the Russian emperor was guided by political goals, seeing the advantageous strategic position of Courland and hoping to annex it to Russia in the near future.

Two months after the marriage, Anna Ivanovna became a widow. Having become the Duchess of Courland, she received a very poor duchy and lived mainly on funds released from the Russian treasury, first by decree of Peter I, and then by decree of his successors. However, this “content” was small, which condemned the young widow to constant begging from both the tsar and the Russian palace elite. This position made Anna Ivanovna dependent on the Russian imperial court.

All this largely determined the decision of the "supreme leaders". The result of their reflections on strengthening their own role in the state was the development of conditions under which the new empress could take the throne. This document was called "Conditions" and included several provisions.

The future empress assumed obligations not to marry, not to appoint an heir, not to appoint senior officials without the consent of the Supreme Privy Council, not to decide on her own issues of war and peace, not to manage state finances.

The "conditions" were delivered to Courland, and Anna Ivanovna agreed to sign them. However, when in Moscow, where the sovereign's court moved under Peter II, it became known about the conditions of the leaders, discontent arose among the nobility and a broad opposition movement unfolded. The mood of the ordinary nobility was well conveyed in one of the notes that went from hand to hand: "God forbid that instead of one autocratic sovereign, ten autocratic and strong families do not become." At a large reception at the Empress's on February 25, 1730, the opposition directly addressed her with a request to "accept autocracy such as your glorious and laudable ancestors had, and to destroy the items sent" from the Supreme Council ". The Empress immediately tore up the “Conditions” in front of the audience.

The manifesto of February 28, 1730 announced her acceptance of "autocracy". Very quickly, the new empress found support in the face of the guard. Even before the coronation, Anna Ivanovna arranged a reception for the guardsmen from the Preobrazhensky Regiment and the cavalry guards, endowing them with money and personally honoring each with a “cup”. At the same time, she declared herself a colonel of the Preobrazhenians.

Enlisting their support, the future empress strengthened her position so much that she was already able to oppose the leaders. During the reprisal against them, Empress Anna announced the execution of Ivan Dolgoruky, accusing him of trying to present a false will of Peter II on the transfer of the throne to his bride Ekaterina Dolgoruky and thereby mislead the Russian state. Other Dolgoruky, including the former sovereign's bride, were exiled to Berezov. The Supreme Privy Council was dissolved and soon replaced by a new body - the Cabinet of three ministers headed by A.I. Osterman. Four years later, the role of this Committee increased so much that the signatures of the three ministers were equated with the signature of the empress.

Ten years of the reign of Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740) is a very ambiguous and controversial period. At the age of 37, the empress herself was already an established personality, but at the same time she had to take into account, understand, act in such a way as to keep the throne, occupied by her by chance. Therefore, the assessment of both the personality and the reign of Anna Ivanovna causes different judgments of historians.

IN. Klyuchevsky gives this Russian empress a rather poisonous characterization: “Tall and obese, with a face that is more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more hardened during early widowhood among diplomatic intrigues and court adventures.
in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, already 37 years old, brought to Moscow an evil and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and rude entertainment.

IN. Klyuchevsky also drew attention to the fact that the empress “surrendered herself to the festivities and amusements that amazed foreign observers with Motov’s luxury and bad taste. In everyday life, she could not do without crackers, rattles, which she was looking for in almost all corners of the empire: with their incessant chatter, they calmed down in her a caustic feeling of loneliness. Various festivities, masquerades, balls, which lasted up to 10 days, became the norm of life, the imperial court. The cost of maintaining the court under Anna Ivanovna was several times higher than the funds allocated under Peter I.

Of the bizarre amusements of the court of that time, the wedding of Prince M.A. was most famous. Golitsyn, promoted by the Empress to jesters, with a court jester. It took place in a specially constructed ice house and became a symbol of the wild customs and arbitrariness of this era. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, for Empress Anna it was "a great pleasure to humiliate a person, admire his humiliation, make fun of his mistake."

Emphasizing another aspect of Anna Ivanovna's reign, V.O. Klyuchevsky noted: “Not trusting the Russians, Anna put a bunch of foreigners on guard of her security ... The Germans poured into Russia, like rubbish from a holey bag, stuck around the courtyard, sat down on the throne, climbed into all the profitable places in management.” At the head of this foreign camarilla was Ernst Johann Biron, a favorite of the Empress, who had served at her Courland court since 1718. Without occupying any official state posts in the Russian hierarchy of power, Biron actually directed the entire policy of Russia, personifying its power. His name gave the name of the era - "Bironism". According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, “the real bosses of the state, Vice-Chancellor Osterman and Field Marshal Minich, towered over a bunch of Biron’s nonentities,” the Ural factories ended up in the hands of the adventurer Shemberg, and Schumacher was in charge of the Academy of Sciences.

However, attention should also be paid to non-traditional views on this issue. A number of modern researchers emphasize that there is no reason to talk about a noticeable increase in foreigners in the Russian public service in the period from 1730. Many of those who are called foreigners appeared in Russia in the service since the Petrine period.

The assertion that Anna Ivanovna completely removed herself from power, entrusting it to Biron, also seems very problematic. Even the historian of the eighteenth century, Prince M.M. Shcherbatov noted her inherent clarity of state views and sober judgment, love of order.

Under Anna Ivanovna, the foreign policy of Russia, its offensive nature, is activated. The country successfully waged a struggle to increase its influence on Poland. The result of this was the accession to the Polish throne of the Russian protege August III.

From 1735 to 1739, Russia made attempts to gain a foothold in the Crimea, entering the war with Turkey. Although access to the Black Sea remained with Turkey, they managed to get the fortress of Azov and part of the territory between the rivers of the Northern Donets and the Bug.

The same authors believe that it was thanks to the efforts of the empress herself that the process of strengthening absolute power based on the guards was observed. “And the dissatisfaction of the Russian nobility, a kind of national protest, was rather associated not with the dominance of foreigners, but with the strengthening of the uncontrolled absolute power of not only the empress, but also her entourage, regardless of whether they were foreigners or Russians.”

Under Anna Ivanovna, new guards regiments and noble educational institutions were established - the gentry corps, then the marine, artillery and page corps. The term of state service is limited to 25 years. The law of Peter I on single inheritance is destroyed. From childhood, minors of the nobility were allowed to be enlisted in the guards regiments and trained at home, and after the exam they were promoted to officers. Thus, she sought support in the guard, following her interests, ignoring the interests of other noble groups. She sought to preserve the inviolability of the throne and her position, trying to prevent any dissent or opposition.

It is no coincidence that the Secret Chancellery, revived from the time of Peter the Great, became the political and state symbol of Anna Ivanovna’s reign, which monitored the mood in the country, followed any speeches against the empress or her entourage, using denunciations, torture, exile, executions as a powerful weapon in the struggle to strengthen power. 10 thousand people passed through the secret office.

At the same time, one should not ignore the privileged status of the foreign environment of the Russian sovereign. Fearing the intrigues of the Russian nobility, the empress saw support precisely in foreigners dependent on her, among whom E. Biron was the main character. Taking advantage of Anna Ivanovna's favor, her foreign entourage plundered the country, sold profitable court positions, sought to seize the army and take possession of the national wealth of Russia. All this offended not only national feelings, the dignity of the Russian people, but also provoked protest, albeit from a small part of the nobility. This can be confirmed by the emergence of a kind of circle of dissatisfied people around a very successful statesman, former Astrakhan and Kazan governor, member of the Cabinet of Ministers A.P. Volynsky. They developed the "Project on the Correction of State Affairs", which was designed to protect the Russian nobility from foreign arbitrariness and dominance. However, Volynsky's criticism of Biron, and then of Anna Ivanovna, ended with the accusation of the oppositionists of a state conspiracy, an attempt on power and the execution of those who were objectionable.

Understanding the complexity of the situation in the country, the possibility of a conflict brewing, the empress tried to expand the power of the landowners over the peasants. The collection of poll taxes was transferred into the hands of the nobles, the landlords were allowed to punish the peasants themselves for escaping. Forced labor in industrial enterprises increased. From 1736 factory workers were permanently attached to factories. But even such decrees could not put an end to discontent in different social strata.

At the same time, the dynastic problem continued to exist in Russia. Having no direct heirs, Anna Ivanovna decided to appoint her great-nephew - the infant son of her niece Anna Leopoldovna and the Duke of Brunswick - Ivan, who went down in history under the name of Ivan Antonovich, as the heir to the throne.

In 1740, the dying Russian empress handed over the throne to this child under the regency until his majority E. Biron. However, another palace coup, carried out by the guards of Field Marshal Munnich, led to the fall of Biron and for some time slowed down the spread of opposition noble sentiments.

As a result of the coup, Anna Leopoldovna, the mother of the child sovereign, became the new regent, but these events did not solve the problems that had accumulated in the state.

Anna Leopoldovna turned out to be a very weak ruler. According to the recall of the Prussian King Frederick II, she "with some sobriety of mind was distinguished by all the whims and shortcomings of a badly educated woman." She absolutely lacked the ability of a statesman. According to contemporaries, Anna Leopoldovna was a lazy and careless woman. Instead of relying on experienced advisers, she approached mediocre people, inexperienced in politics, like her lady-in-waiting Juliana Mengden, a native of Livonia, or her favorite, the Saxon envoy Linar, who was beginning to claim the role of the second Biron.

All this led to the fact that the authorities and powerful people still remained compromised and vulnerable. The Russian national nobility began to associate their hopes with the name of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth. Dissatisfaction with the Braunschweig rulers, including the frivolous Anna Leopoldovna, spread to the guards. She also sided with Princess Elizabeth.

On November 24, 1741, a palace coup took place in favor of Elizabeth Petrovna. The main force of the coup was, as before, the guards. At the same time, one of the features was that they prepared in advance and in deep secrecy for the seizure of power. If before the coups were like improvisations, during which the performers acted on behalf of the pretender to the throne, in this case the pretender herself moved at the head of the conspirators.

A distinctive feature of the coup was its anti-German orientation. The time when Biron, Osterman, Munnich and the Braunschweig family were at the helm of power contributed to the awakening of national identity. The name of Elizabeth Petrovna became a symbol of the Russian beginning and the restoration of the greatness of Russia, which was lost to some extent after Peter I.

The peculiarity of this conspiracy was the active participation in it of foreign states interested in changing the orientation of Russia's foreign policy - France and Sweden, which partially subsidized the coup.

As a result of the events that took place, the infant sovereign Ivan Antonovich was rejected, and Elizabeth was proclaimed the autocratic empress. She immediately announced her course as a return to the policy of Peter the Great, the defense of national Russian interests.

By order of the new empress, representatives of the ruling elite A.I. Osterman, B.D. Minikh, M.G. Golovkin and others. After an investigation into their case, the court sentenced them to death, which was replaced by exile to Siberia by the highest decree.

A serious problem arose with the Brunswick family. Initially, it was decided to send them out of the country, including Ivan Antonovich and his mother, but, fearing their future claims to the Russian throne, the whole family was sent into exile near Arkhangelsk. Ivan Antonovich was kept with his parents until the age of 4, then he was placed under the supervision of Major Miller. At the age of 16, he was transferred to the Shlisselburg fortress and was in solitary confinement as a mysterious and dangerous prisoner.

At the same time, all those who elevated Elizabeth Petrovna to the throne received honors and awards. Guardsmen were especially generously rewarded.

The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761) is assessed far from unambiguous. She was very popular. At the same time, her ways, court life and political miscalculations were condemned. This inconsistency of assessments is determined, on the one hand, by Elizabeth’s merit in the systematic patronage of everything national, a more humane domestic policy, a captivating form of treatment of others, but on the other hand, as before, favoritism flourished, the luxury of the Russian imperial court against the backdrop of serious economic problems, and most importantly, the inability and unwillingness to govern the state.

As a politician and statesman, Elizaveta Petrovna did not stand out among her immediate predecessors. An extremely attractive 32-year-old woman of a cheerful disposition, who loved balls and entertainment, was far from public affairs.

Still, under her, the imperial court changed: there were no longer cruel entertainments, court buffoonery was a thing of the past. The favoritism that persisted at court also did not have that aggressive and hateful character, as in the old days. Favorites of Elizabeth Petrovna A. Buturlin, A. Razumovsky, I. Shuvalov were not perceived as hostile in society, like Biron or Linar.

The ruling elite, formed under the Empress, was able to achieve certain stability and order in the state through its policy.

Under Elizaveta Petrovna, the Senate was restored as the highest state body and the Cabinet of Ministers was liquidated. Peter's Berg and Manufacture Colleges, the Chief Magistrate were recreated.

In 1754, earlier than in many European states, internal state duties were abolished, and protectionist tariffs, which were canceled in 1731, were restored. A bank was opened to issue loans to entrepreneurs, although its role was largely reduced to supporting the ruined nobles.

Having ascended the throne, the empress abolished the death penalty, stopped the mass practice of sophisticated torture, and the activities of the Secret Chancellery became more inconspicuous.

Social policy remained the same. The expansion of the rights and privileges of the nobility was achieved by strengthening the oppression of the peasants. Since 1746, only the nobles were given the right to own land and peasants. The landowners received the right to exile discontented peasants to Siberia, with their credits instead of recruits. Peasants were forbidden to conduct monetary transactions without the permission of the landowner. The landlords, in turn, in relation to the peasants, were endowed with police functions and received the right to dispose of land, and the person, and property of the peasants.

At the same time, it is important to note that during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna there were significant changes in the field of education and science. National cadres appeared in the Academy of Sciences. The first Russian member of the Academy was M.V. Lomonosov. A great place in it was occupied by the poet V.K. Trediakovsky, inventor A.K. Narts. In 1746, a new regulation of the Academy was adopted, according to which it became not only a scientific, but also an educational institution. In 1755, Moscow University was opened, more accessible to the provincial nobility and commoners. There were ten professors in his staff, three faculties operated: legal, medical and philosophical. At this time, the Academy of Arts appeared.

Under Elizabeth and in foreign policy, priority was given to national interests. With the accession of the new empress to the throne, there was already a war with Sweden, which declared its desire to help the legitimate heir to the throne to gain power. In reality, Sweden wanted to take away from Russia the territory conquered by Peter I. However, these plans did not materialize. As a result of the successful offensive of the Russian army, it was possible not only to force Sweden to refuse to revise the results of the Northern War, but also to expand the Russian border in Finland by 60 versts.

The second war in which Russia was involved was the Seven Years' War of a number of European states against Prussia. Following its interests, Russia sought to prevent the strengthening of Prussian influence in the Baltic states and Poland. As a result of complex military operations, maneuvers, reshuffles in the highest army circles, Russia managed to win a number of major victories and put Prussia on the brink of complete ruin, and the warlike King Frederick II recognized himself defeated.

However, the successes of the Russian army did not give the country real results. The disagreements that arose with the allies, the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in December 1761 and the accession of the new Emperor Peter III to the Russian throne dramatically affected the military and political situation in Russia. On the initiative of Peter III - a great admirer of the Prussian king - a peace treaty with Prussia was hastily concluded. She was returned the previously conquered territories and declared her an ally of Russia. At the same time, despite such a problematic world, Russia has nevertheless strengthened its international prestige and the right to influence European affairs.

So, after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich took the throne. The Empress had no direct heirs. In an effort to strengthen her own position and put an end to the claims of the supporters of the Brunswick family, she declares her nephew Karl-Peter, the son of Anna Petrovna's sister and the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl Friedrich, to be her heir. By the will of fate, this child, who lost his parents early, was related by blood to three monarchs at once: the Swedish king Charles XII, the Russian emperor Peter I and the Duke of Holstein.

The Holstein prince brought to Russia was baptized according to the Orthodox rite and received the name of Peter Fedorovich. Elizaveta Petrovna tried to do everything possible to prepare her nephew for the throne.

In Holstein, he received almost no education. His tutor, Chief Marshal of the Holstein court Brummer, was distinguished by ignorance, rudeness, cruelty and a barbaric attitude towards the pupil. A boy beaten down by his caregivers, and then a young man, grew up as a man with a strange psyche and bizarre interests. In addition, by nature he was endowed with a very weak mind and health. “Its development stopped before growth,” writes V.O. Klyuchevsky, - in the years of courage, he remained the same as he was in childhood, he grew up without maturing.

A very unflattering description of the personality of the Russian heir to the throne is contained in the notes of his wife, the future Empress Catherine II, and in the memoirs of Princess E.R. Dashkova - associates of the Empress.

However, seeing in them persons interested in discrediting the image of Peter III, there is reason to be critical of these sources. It is impossible to ignore non-traditional judgments about Pyotr Fedorovich. In the works of V.N. Tatishcheva, N.M. Karamzin, modern historians S.M. Kashtanova, A.S. Mylnikov, it is indicated that he was not a rude martinet, he loved Italian music, and had his own view on key issues of foreign and domestic policy. Although they do not deny such traits of his character as irascibility, swagger, arrogance in actions, isolation. The authors associate the negative personality traits of the young sovereign with an unstable complex of dual consciousness. German by father and Russian by mother, Peter III constantly experienced a sense of the duality of his origin and position.

At the same time, the testimonies of the majority of contemporaries, politicians of that era speak of Pyotr Fedorovich as a narrow-minded, absurd, unbalanced person. Yes, and the Empress Elizabeth herself was subsequently burdened by the behavior of her nephew, calling him a "devil".

Having stayed in Russia for 22 years, Peter never fell in love with the country of which he was emperor. Until the end of his days, he remained an admirer of Frederick II and an adherent of Prussia. He believed that it was better to be a colonel in the Prussian army than an emperor in Russia.

Neither Elizaveta Petrovna nor his wife Anhalt-Zerbst Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta, who received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna in Russia in Orthodoxy, could change his character or influence his views, behavior.

The six-month reign of Peter III was marked by very active activity. During this time, 292 orders were accepted. The most significant were the abolition of the sinister Secret Chancellery, the cessation of the persecution of the Old Believers, and the secularization of church lands. Under him, the Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility was published, according to which the nobility more and more turned from a servant into a completely privileged estate.

Noting the importance and significance of a number of decrees adopted under Peter III, V.O. Klyuchevsky did not see the merit of the emperor himself in this, believing that his rather practical and educated supporters - the Vorontsovs, Shuvalov, Volkov and others - sought to strengthen the popularity of the emperor and change the attitude of the nobility towards him. On the one hand, the new sovereign continued the course of his predecessors, sometimes going further than them. On the other hand, his actions were not thought out, combined with rudeness and disrespect even for his surroundings. They were distinguished by intemperance, tactlessness, disorderliness.

The attitude of the emperor towards the guardsmen was very negative, whom he called "Janissaries" and considered them dangerous for the government. Peter made no secret of his intention to disband the Guards regiments.

All this could not but give rise to opposition to him among the officers, and above all in the guards. Opposition to the emperor also spread throughout society as a whole. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, it was obvious that the government mechanism was in disorder, which caused a friendly murmur, which imperceptibly turned into a military conspiracy, and the conspiracy led to a new coup.

Thus, characterizing the second quarter of the 18th century - the era of palace coups, it should be considered as a single historical period of the Russian state, despite the external differences in state policy and the personal qualities of the sovereigns who changed on the throne.

The defining feature of that time was the strengthening of the positions of the nobility and the protection of its estate interests in the new conditions: in the post-Petrine era, the nobility finally formed as the only privileged ruling class, forcing the autocratic power to reflect its class interests in all areas of the state policy of the empire.

To the begining

Test for self-control

1. What was the main reason for the palace coups of the 18th century?

A) the desire of senior officers for power;

B) there was a struggle for power between the aristocracy and the new nobility and opponents of Peter's reforms;

C) absolute power ceased to be justified by the personal qualities of its holder and became the servant of a privileged class that aspired to participate in the government of the country.

2. Indicate the correct sequence of the change of rulers on the Russian throne in the 18th century:

A) Peter I, Catherine I, Anna Ioannovna, Peter II, Ivan Antonovich, Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine II, Peter III, Paul I;

B) Peter I, Catherine I, Elizaveta Petrovna, Peter II, Ivan Antonovich, Anna Ioannovna, Peter III, Catherine II, Paul I;

C) Peter I, Catherine I, Peter II, Anna Ioannovna, Ivan Antonovich, Elizaveta Petrovna, Peter III, Catherine II, Paul I.

3. The period of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna:

A) 1730-1740; b) 1741-1761; c) 1762-1796

4. Which of the rulers issued the Manifesto on the release of the nobles from compulsory service?

A) Catherine II; b) Elizaveta Petrovna; c) Peter III.

5. Which of the activities was carried out by Anna Ioannovna?

A) provincial reform;

B) creation of the Secret Chancellery;

C) the establishment of the Supreme Privy Council.

6. When was Moscow University opened?

A) 1762; b) 1755; c) 1740

7. For what purpose and in whose interests were the "conditions" drawn up by the Supreme Privy Council?

A) in order to limit autocracy in favor of the aristocratic elite;

B) in order to restore traditional absolutism;

C) in order to limit the supreme power in favor of wider circles of the nobility, the establishment of electoral government.

8. What event was carried out during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna?

A) establishment of the Noble Land Bank;

B) secularization of church lands;

C) the creation of gentry cadet corps.

9. Which of the historians first used the concept of "the era of palace coups" in relation to the history of post-Petrine Russia?

A) Karamzin N.M.;

B) Solovyov S.M.;

C) Klyuchevsky V.O.

10. Bironovshchina flourished during the reign:

A) Catherine I; b) Anna Ioannovna; c) Anna Leopoldovna.