Book: History of the State and Law of Foreign Countries.Mudrak

17.4. Changes in the US government system in the second half of the 19th century.

In the second half of the 19th century, the United States was a classic bourgeois federation in terms of its form of government. There was a steady increase in the number of federation members. If in the 70s of the 19th century there were thirty-eight states, then at the beginning of the 20th century there were already forty-five. Thus, North Dakota, Washington, Montana, South Dakota, Idaho, and Wyoming acquired this status.

The central government strengthened significantly after the civil war. The issue of the possibility of non-recognition (nullification) by the subjects of the federation of acts of the Union, the right of the state to secession were finally removed from the agenda. Back in 1819, the US Supreme Court formulated the doctrine of “powers that are considered,” which allowed almost any issue to be brought within the competence of the federation. Thus, one of the important results of the Civil War was the undoubted advantage of the Union over the states.

However, the states, as members of the Union, retained significant rights: they dealt with issues of constitutional and other legislation, education, local government, mi-coalition, prisons, etc.

The highest bodies of power and administration of the states resembled the federal ones in form: legislative functions were entrusted to the bicameral parliament, and executive functions were entrusted to the governor. State legislative assemblies consisted of the Senate and the lower house, which was called differently in different states - House of Representatives, Assembly, etc. Senators were elected for four years, and members of the lower house for two.

The state governor was elected by the electorate for a term of two to four years. In some states, a Council was formed under the governor. The position of the governor-nator of the state was peculiar. He was considered the bearer of executive power, but other state officials (attorney general, chief superintendents of education, auditors, etc.) were not responsible to him.

With few exceptions, all significant issues were resolved by the subjects of the federation.

United States Congress. In the second half of the 19th century, the congress was an influential body. Moreover, one can even talk about the priority of Congress over the president. The Senate, for example, held in its hands control over such very significant areas of government life as foreign relations and appointments to federal positions. The opinion of the upper house of Congress was very authoritative; the presidents were guilty of taking it into account when making their decisions. Some lawyers call the period of the 1880s and 1990s the era of “Congressional rule in the United States.”

At this time, the committee system in Congress emerged and developed. Preliminary consideration of bills was carried out by parliamentary committees, of which there were several dozen in each chamber. The committee system led to significant changes in the work of Congress: publicity changed to strict secrecy, it became the rule to consult with those who were directly interested in the passage of the bill, etc.

At the same time, there is a restriction on such an important institution of bourgeois parliamentary democracy as freedom of discussion in Congress. In 1889, the powers of the Speaker of the House of Representatives were significantly expanded. From now on, he had the opportunity to exercise significant influence on the course of the legislative process in Congress.

Certain changes also took place in electoral law. Thus, the XIV and XV amendments to the US Constitution proclaimed universal suffrage for men who met the requirements of the age and residence qualifications. In 1871, secret voting was introduced in federal elections. Since 1876, a new procedure has been established for elections to the House of Representatives of Congress in districts that were specially organized for this purpose. Following the Union, all states (with the exception of North and South Carolina and Georgia) also introduced closed voting.

In addition to the main ones, there were numerous additional qualifications introduced by the states: ownership of property or payment of taxes (Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, etc.), compliance with moral criteria (Alabama, Louisiana, etc.). In some southern states, atheists were deprived of the right to vote. There was a literacy requirement (Maine, Delaware, etc.),

there was a special residency requirement. In fact, there was a racial qualification

which excluded millions of blacks and Indians from participating in elections.

President of the U.S.A. In the second half of the 19th century, the United States was a presidential republic, the head of which simultaneously headed both the government and the state. Moreover, the government did not answer to Congress.

Great powers were concentrated in the hands of the president, among which the right of veto occupied a special place. It was very difficult to refute it. Thus, from 1798 to 1898, of the 433 bills that were rejected by the executive branch, only 29 received the supermajority votes in Congress that were necessary for their re-approval.

The strengthening of the power of the president is evidenced by a significant increase in the number of “executive orders” issued by the president and equivalent to proclamations and laws of Congress. If A. Lincoln signed only two such regulations, then T. Roosevelt (1901-1909) signed one thousand and eleven.

At the same time, the process of bureaucratization of management is taking place, and the number of federal institutions is growing. In 1870, the Ministry of Justice was formed, in 1872 - the Ministry of Communications, in 1888 - the Ministry of Trade, in 1889 - accreditation of agriculture. In the middle of the 19th century, there were only two and a half thousand federal employees, while at the end of the 19th century there were already more than two hundred thousand.

Supreme Court. During the 19th century, the position and legal role of the US Supreme Court changed significantly, which gradually secured the right of constitutional control in relation to acts of other government authorities.

The Constitution of 1787 gave the Supreme Court supreme, but in its content, ordinary jurisdiction. By the Law on the Judiciary of 1789, the importance of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court was enormously increased and it reached a special level. The Supreme Court was given the power to issue special executive orders binding on the executive branch, including the President and Secretaries of State, as well as the power to strike down any law if its content deviates from the prescriptions and principles of the Constitution.

The Supreme Court began its activity in 1790, after the appointment of 7 judges - mainly supporters of President Washington. During its first 12 years of activity, the court considered only about 60 cases, mainly related to maritime law and international relations of the federation. The work of the court received a new direction at the beginning of the 19th century with the appointment of D. Marshall to the post of chairman.

In 1803, while considering the claim of judicial candidate Marbury against the federal government to remove obstacles to his holding of office, the Supreme Court issued a decision that became an important constitutional precedent. The court recognized the inconsistency of the provisions of Article 13 of the Law on the Judiciary of 1789 with the principle of the Constitution on the separation of powers, annulled the provisions of the Law and, in fact, arrogated to itself the right to interpret the federal Constitution, and, on the basis of a certain interpretation, resolve specific issues of justice and legal practice.

Until the mid-19th century, the most important legal problem in the practice of constitutional review of the Supreme Court was the problem of the relationship between the federation and the states. In this regard, the Supreme Court introduced many important provisions into constitutional law. To justify the state unity and integrity of the country, a decision was made (1793) that the states do not constitute sovereign states and therefore the Congress of the Federation has coercive power in relation to the state. However, in another case, the Court recognized that there is mutual independence of competence of the states and the federation. One of the most important provisions of constitutional practice was the decision in the Texas case (1869). The Supreme Court ruled that a state's entry into the federation was irreversible and that the federal government had the right to use force to maintain the integrity of the federation. This finally resolved the issue of the unity of the state and the subordination of states' rights in it.

The Court has repeatedly made decisions based on the principle that the Constitution is an act of special supreme importance, and its content is not limited to the literal text, but includes some conditional principles. As a result, an important position for the constitutional system and US law has emerged that the Constitution is the way it is interpreted by judges, and everything that does not contradict the principles of the constitution, even if it is not directly provided for, is legal and should serve as a direct guide for practice . The content of the updated constitutional law is best expressed by Justice Marshall, giving explanations of the new broad understanding of what is and is not consistent with the main law: “The purpose must be legitimate and must be within the limits of the Constitution, and all available means for achieving it that are not prohibited and comply with the letter and spirit of the Constitution and are recognized as constitutional.”

1.	History of state and law of foreign countries.Mudrak
2.	1.2. The significance of the history of state and law as a science and its place in the system of legal disciplines
3.	1.3. Periodization of the history of state and law of foreign countries
4.	1.4. The emergence of state and law
5.	2.1. The emergence of the state and its development
6.	2.2. Social system and its evolution
7.	2.3. Government system, court, armed forces
8.	2.4. Basic features of law
9.	3.1. Features of the emergence and development of the state and law of Mesopotamia
10.	3.2. Formation of the Babylonian state
11.	3.3. Legal status of certain population groups. Features of slavery
12.	3.4. Government system, court, armed forces
13.
14.	4.1. The emergence of the state and its development
15.	4.2. Features of the social system
16.	4.3. Government system, court, armed forces
17.	4.4. Laws of Manu
18.	5.1. The emergence of the state and its development. Shan (Yin) State
19.	5.2. State of Zhou
20.	5.3. State of Qin
21.	5.4. State of Han
22.	5.5. Basic features of law
23.	6.1. The decomposition of tribal relations and the emergence of the state in Athens. Theseus' reforms
24.	6.2. Solon's reforms. Cleisthenes' reforms. Their assessment, democratization of the state system
25.	6.3. Legal status of the population. Slave-owning democracy in Athens
26.	6.4. Government system, court, armed forces. Main features of Athenian law
27.	6.5. The emergence of the state in Sparta
28.	6.6. Social system and government system of Sparta
29.	7.1. The origins of Roman statehood. Reform of Servius Tullius
30.	7.2. Formation of an aristocratic republic. Legal status of the population
31.	7.3. Government system, court, armed forces. Governance of provinces
32.	7.4. Crisis and fall of the republic. Changes in the social order
33.	7.5. Transition to monarchy. Principate. Changes in the economy, social system and government structure during the period of the Principate
34.	7.6. Dominant. Social order and government system. Diocletian's reforms
35.
36.	8.1. Features of the emergence of the state among the Franks
37.	8.2. Social system. Reform of Charles Martell
38.	8.3. Political system. Treaty of Verdun 843 and the collapse of the Frankish state
39.
40.	9.1. Development of feudal relations. Period of feudal fragmentation
41.	9.2. Estate-representative monarchy. Central and local government (XIV - XV centuries)
42.	9.3. Absolute monarchy. The political system during the period of absolutism. Reforms of Richelieu and Louis XIV
43.
44.	10.1. Development of feudal relations in England. Formations of Anglo-Saxon states
45.	10.2. The Norman Conquest ma its influence on the social and political system of England in the 11th - 12th centuries. Reforms of Henry II. Magna Carta 1215
46.	10.3. Formation of a class-representative monarchy. Political system.
47.	10.4. The emergence and characteristics of English absolutism. Changes in the social system and government structure.
48.
49.	11.1. Formation and development of the feudal state in the X - XII centuries.
50.	11.2. The emergence and features of the estate-representative monarchy
51.	11.3. The formation of princely absolutism
52.	11.4. Features of the development of feudal law in Germany
53.	12.1. Features of the formation of class society and state among the Arabs
54.	12.2. Social order
55.	12.3. Organization of state and power. Court
56.
57.	13.1. The emergence and development of the feudal state in Poland
58.	13.2. The emergence and development of the feudal state in the Czech Republic
59.	13.3. Features of the emergence and development of the feudal state in Bulgaria
60.	13.4. The emergence and development of the feudal state in Serbia
61.	14.1. The emergence of the state and its development
62.	14.2. Social order
63.	14.3. The political system of the estate-representative monarchy
64.	14.4. The formation of an absolute monarchy and its features
65.
66.	15.1. History of taxes.
67.	15.2. Types of taxes.
68.	15.3. Tax authorities.
69.	15.4. Responsibility for tax evasion.
70.	16.1. Prerequisites, stages and features of the English bourgeois revolution. Proclamation of the Republic. Political system. Restoration of the monarchy.
71.	16.2. Development of the constitutional monarchy and parliament in the 17th - 19th centuries.
72.	16.3. Changes in the political system at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries.
73.

The economic shift that has occurred in the United States is somewhat reminiscent of the beginning of the Russian post-reform economic movement that followed the abolition of serfdom in 1861. In America, slavery was abolished by law, and a colossal layer of relatively autonomous plantation farms in the South, self-sufficient in the daily supply of goods, entered the general production and commercial circulation of the market economy.

This led to both quantitative and qualitative growth in industrial and commercial relations in the country. Consumer demand for essential goods has expanded exponentially, creating incentives to increase their production. And the growth of productive forces, in turn, stimulated the demand for improvement of means of production, their modification and intensification of the production of raw materials, both industrial and agricultural. In addition, the former dominance of imports of goods into the United States has been replaced by increasing exports of American products to European countries. This created the prerequisites for raising the advertising process to the rank of a common cultural property of the nation.

In practice, the expansion of advertising in the country looked like this. A German journalist conducted a proto-sociological experiment: he decided to measure the quantitative aspect of advertising expansion over several light days, spending thirty hours on the streets of New York for this purpose. During this period, he was given “hand to hand” about 400 advertising works. Among them there were: 256 - flying leaves; 23

Large-format poster-type images; 98 - small format cards; 15

In addition to this genre distribution, the result of the analysis was the calculation of the most preferred advertising objects. It turned out that about a quarter of advertising products popularize various consumer services: ateliers, hairdressers, shoemakers; at least the next quarter of the works are devoted to restaurant service; another quarter concerned sports, tourism, travel, hotels, and the last quarter accounted for everything else, including texts marked “for men only”66.

This entire stream fell on passers-by in addition to the stationary signs, wall posters and posters that surrounded them, as well as “sandwiches” borrowed from “old Europe” and making a good living in the New World.

All this is just a small illustration of the quantitative side of the development of advertising in the United States in the last third of the 19th century. And what are the qualitative processes that approved, if not fundamentally new, then significantly updated areas of advertising? This is, first of all, a qualitatively new stage in the establishment of factory brands and brand names. A similar process in the 19th century was observed in European countries - there it occurs gradually and relatively calmly. In America, the approval of trade and industrial symbols occurred noisily, with pomp, with reviews in newspapers, with an initially clear desire to imprint the newly-minted “brands” in the perception of consumers once and for all.

A significant stimulus for the advertising load of trademarks was the conflict of patent fever. It was during this nationwide craze that the mesmerizing effect on the consumer of advertising facets designed to certify the quality of the product was clearly revealed.

From the vicissitudes of the patent rush, society and the federal government have drawn several significant conclusions regarding advertising.

The need for government regulation of various initiatives became obvious: in 1857, already one and a half thousand “patented” products were sold in the United States. But it wasn't until 1870 that the Library of Congress began rigorously recording patent applications. A movement began to match what was advertised with what was contained in the product itself. The regulation of patent symbols at the level of federal law took place on March 3, 1881. Among the first to register their trademarks were the inventors of linoleum, cellophane and aspirin, as well as the “creator” of purely American “Quaker” oatmeal breakfasts.

In a number of European countries, similar documents existed much earlier. Types of marking of precious metals - gold and silver - have been registered in England since the 14th century. The Guild of Goldsmiths in Nuremberg compiled a similar register of brand names in 1612. It operated until 1757. In Edinburgh there is a collection of stamps from pewter makers dating from the 17th century. The statute of the city of Carcassonne (France) is known from 1666, which protects the signs of textile merchants -

Closer to modern times, the role of such markings in Europe is increasing. It becomes a kind of flagship of the competition for consumers. In the 18th century, noble intendants of European crowned families competently made a choice between brands of Sèvres (France) and Meissen (Germany) porcelain. However, serious legal protection of the entire set of brand names was formed only in the 19th century. In France, this occurs in 1857 and is improved in 1890. In Germany, the experience of a relatively complete codification of production and trademarks corresponds to 1871, and clarifications are made in 1874 and 1894.

In England, work on a similar document is captured in three documents: 1883,1888 and 1905

Let's return to the USA. Here, too, on the eve of the 1881 law, in addition to the patent boom, there was experience in marking precious metals, specific notches with which loggers marked logs floated along rivers, and the development of book publishing symbols. But it was precisely the mass production of the mid-19th century in the USA, as well as in England of the same period, that required the unification of advertising techniques from various areas into a single information complex.

Labeling of mass consumer products received additional impetus with the start of the production of packaged goods, with new advertising opportunities now acquired by the previously purely utilitarian sphere of packaging.

Of course, like the trademark and advertising agencies, packaging was not invented in the United States. An American specialist on this issue, Thomas Hine, writes: “The beginning of modern packaging can be considered those products with a name, container and label that appeared in London around the end of the 17th century. The packages contained medicines - elixirs, balms and ointments intended to treat one or a number of diseases at once”14.

Cosmetics and medicines are the first types of goods whose sale has become impossible without packaging in bottles, jars, boxes, bags or bags. But the utilitarian role of packaging is not the main thing that interests us in a book on advertising. For us, the informational, expressive and suggestive capabilities of these “shells” of the product are paramount, which, when imprinted on a wrapper or label, create an advertising effect. “Packaging is a symbol,” writes the author quoted above, “and not only of its contents, but also of the consumer’s lifestyle”15. And further: “Demonstration is its most obvious function”16.

The triumphant “procession” of dazzlingly diverse packaging through American cities and towns began in the last third of the 19th century and continues to this day. Its first takeoff was generated by the idea of ​​packaging not only cosmetic and medical products, but also many other products. Now it is difficult to imagine that in most shops of the middle of the last century, flour and granulated sugar were weighed out to customers in random containers from huge bags, and soap was transported to farms in semi-liquid form in huge containers. A similar form of trade services for bulk goods is still used in many countries around the world. Except that soap is no longer delivered anywhere in barrels. In America, packaging replaced other types of retail by the beginning of the 20th century.

In 1879, Robert Geir in Brooklyn managed to establish mass production of cardboard boxes. “Within seven years of Geir's invention, the Quaker oats company, having packaged its product in a folding box, discovered that selling the product nationwide in small, neat, distinctive packages greatly increased demand for it. Ten years later, all factory-made goods were sold in such boxes.”17

Let us highlight the definition of “peculiar” from the above quote. It is in this direction that advertising begins to develop its partnership with packaging structures. All sides of the packaging boxes are gradually filled with texts, color images, logos and branding imprints. Moreover, the packaging form and its design become a springboard on which dramatic collisions between competing firms unfold, where each is concerned that its products look unique and do not merge in the perception of consumers with foreign products.

One of the prosperous manufacturers of patented products in the 19th century, Mrs. Pinkham professed feminist beliefs and printed some arguments in favor of women's emancipation on packaging boxes. Needless to say, how much more willingly did representatives of half of humanity buy just such boxes.

The Quaker oats campaign, which has been selling oatmeal since the middle of the last century until our time, has managed to extract the maximum possible from the originality of the designed packaging. The main emblem of the company was the figure of a portly Quaker, who flaunted the words: “without admixture.” The inscription on the packaging was modest but convincing: “We especially want to draw your attention to the purity, speed of preparation and the fact that the taste and aroma are not affected as a result.” The owner of the company, Henry Crowell, made effective efforts to expand the popularity of his logo. He offered prizes to those who could cut out a picture of a Quaker from the packaging and mail it to the company's office. “Quakers were painted on fences, on building walls, on tram cars, on billboards. For several years, "Quaker oats" was advertised like no other product ever before.

Representatives of the Quaker oats company actively used not only visual and print advertising, but also promoted all sorts of promotions related to the distribution of their product. Small boxes of oatmeal samples were ordered and transported by train from station to station. At stops where there were schools, students, for a small fee, delivered these boxes to every householder free of charge. This is how a “total” tasting of the new product was organized.

In large cities, students from economic colleges were hired for a similar purpose, who set up “camp kitchens” that made oatmeal and gave it to everyone who walked by and did not object to it. In 1891, the head of the company equipped regular carriages. The clerks who served them in company suits came out to

stations, staged a show in the style of F. Barnum and invited everyone around to free

no tasting -.

It is curious that the inventive potential of the managers and advertisers of this company has not dried up to this day. In 1986, the company received an award from the National Sales Promotion Association for the success of its "Find the Captain" advertising campaign, which also used packaging. "Captain Crunch" - oatmeal for children - was depicted on the boxes in an aura of sea romance. But then he disappeared from the packaging, and consumers were told in the inserts that the captain could be “found” if they bought three packs of cereal and read the clues there. The prize was one hundred dollars by lot for those who sent correct answers. The curiosity of children and adults exceeded the expectations of the organizers of this game. The increase in sales of oatmeal over six months reached 50%.

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Rice. 20. Advertisement for American “Quaker” oatmeal breakfasts. 1897 Atlanta. In 1886, the invention was sold as a tonic for 5 cents a glass in a pharmacy. Its popularity skyrocketed after D. Pemberton's successor, A. Gandler, distributed thousands of coupons offering a free glass of Coca-Cola. Bottling of the drink began in 1899, and immediately the entrepreneur’s concern for protecting his brainchild from counterfeiting was born. To a large extent, this was done thanks to the original packaging, now known throughout the world. In 1916, a bottle of a specific shape was registered as a trademark by the US Patent Office22.

Among European countries in the 19th century, France took the lead in ingenuity and elegance of packaging. In contrast to the North American emphasis on mass production, conveyor belt production, here they focused on sophistication and uniqueness not only in goods, but also in their external “clothing”. For example, professional artists were hired to decorate packages and boxes in which outfits from high fashion houses were sent to customers.

In the history of Latin America in the 19th century. The most important event was the formation of independent Latin American states. Spain and Portugal were the first European countries to lose their richest colonies. However, the collapse of the colonial system created by the Europeans occurred only in the second half of the 20th century.

Dependence on the metropolis

The entire life of the Latin American colonies was subordinated to the interests and needs of the mother countries. Spain and Portugal viewed their overseas possessions as a source of precious metals and plantation products (cane sugar, cotton, tobacco, rice, etc.). The mining industry was well developed in the colonies, especially the royal mines. But the manufacturing industry hardly developed. Even at the beginning of the 19th century. there were very few manufactures. The colonial authorities deliberately slowed down the development of industry in order to preserve the metropolis's monopoly on the import of finished products. This is the only reason why internal trade between the colonies themselves was prohibited. The authorities also prevented the cultivation of grapes, olives, flax, and the breeding of silkworms. It was allowed to produce only those agricultural crops that were not cultivated in the metropolis.

Creole opposition

At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. dissatisfaction with the colonial administration intensified. There were uprisings of the urban lower classes and Indians. Opposition sentiments grew among the Creoles. In the Creole opposition, which was influenced by the ideas of the French Revolution, two currents took shape. One advocated separation from Spain, the other advocated equal rights with the Spaniards and participation in the administration of the colonies. Spanish America was on the verge of a powerful explosion of the liberation movement.

Spanish War of Independence (1810-1826)

The international situation was favorable to the struggle for independence. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Spain took part in devastating wars with France and England. Under these conditions, the Creole opposition intensified its activities. Secret patriotic organizations were created throughout Spanish America. Their goal was to prepare an armed uprising and overthrow Spanish colonial oppression.

Serious defeats of Spain from Napoleonic France in 1809-1810. served as a signal for the start of liberation uprisings. The War of Independence of the Spanish Colonies lasted from 1810 to 1826. Creole revolutionaries played a leading role in it. Simon Bolivar, who came from a noble family, proved himself to be an extraordinary commander. He defeated the Spanish troops more than once. Negro slaves who fought in the liberation army received freedom. In 1821, Bolivar's army completely liberated Venezuela.

The liberation movement in Mexico began with a peasant uprising led by the village priest Miguel Hidalgo. The rebels opposed not only the Spanish authorities, but also the Creole landowners. After the death of Hidalgo, the struggle for independence was led by moderate Creoles.

As a result of the War of Independence, independent republics arose on the site of the former Spanish colonies: Mexico, Gran Colombia (which included Venezuela and Ecuador), Argentina, Peru, Chile, etc. In the Latin American republics, class and racial inequality were abolished, and the poll tax and labor duties and colonial taxes to the royal treasury. But power passed into the hands of the landed aristocracy and the military of Creole origin. Slavery in most republics survived until the mid-19th century.

The liberation movement in Portuguese Brazil was unique. After the occupation of Portugal by Napoleon's army, the royal court fled here in 1808. The city of Rio de Janeiro became the center of the Portuguese monarchy. Prince Pedro carried out a number of reforms, but this did not stop the liberation movement. In 1820, Brazil separated from Portugal and became a monarchy, with Pedro as emperor.

Latin American countries in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries

Most Latin American countries were undergoing an industrial revolution. The first factories appeared, new technology was introduced, and the construction of railways began. The bourgeoisie of the South American countries was weak. Therefore, the introduction of machines into the production and construction of railways was carried out by foreigners.

Foreign capital played an important role in the economic life of Latin American countries. England and the USA enjoyed especially great influence. Part of the wealth of small South American countries was controlled by American capitalists. The global importance of South America especially increased after the discovery of oil sources in a number of countries. Mining of non-ferrous metals began in Colombia, Peru and Chile. The natural resources of these countries were exported to Europe and the USA.

History of the Latin American republics in the second half of the 19th century. may seem monotonous. After achieving independence, there was no peace. The countries of the continent were rocked by civil wars, revolutions, and military dictatorships were established. It is not easy to keep track of the constant change of governments. Colombia, for example, experienced six civil wars in less than half a century (1839-1885).

In Brazil, the struggle continued against the monarchy, for the establishment of a republic and the abolition of slavery. In 1889, the monarchy was overthrown and Brazil was declared a republic.

The liberation movement intensified in Cuba, which still remained a Spanish colony. The United States tried to purchase this island for money, but to no avail. They eventually started a war in 1898, which Spain lost. Cuba became independent, but the independence was formal, since the Cuban Republic came under US control.

An important event in the history of the peoples of Latin America was the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917. Its result was the adoption of the most progressive constitution at that time. All natural resources of the country (subsoil, water, mountains and forests) were declared the property of the nation, an 8-hour working day was established, and for women and adolescents - a 6-hour day. The rights and privileges of foreign capital were not abolished, but they were seriously limited, and the clergy was deprived of the right to vote. The property of the Catholic Church was transferred to the state. And although many provisions of the Mexican constitution remained on paper, it created more favorable conditions for the development of capitalism.

Culture

In the 19th century important changes took place in cultural life. In the most developed countries of Latin America - Argentina, Mexico, Chile and Brazil - national cultures began to form. Native American and Negro traditions continued to influence European models, especially in poetry and music.

In the literature of the 19th century. the leading direction was romanticism. In the works of writers who took part in the liberation struggle, tyrant-fighting, civil and patriotic motives prevailed. In the middle of the 19th century. a movement known as “life-writing” emerges. It was closely associated with romanticism and at the same time was a harbinger of realism. “Writers of everyday life” are characterized by close attention to the people’s life and national identity of individual countries.

The first Latin American realist Bleet Gana wrote in the 60s. series of novels “The Human Comedy of Chile”. It is not difficult to guess which Europeans influenced him. The connection between poetry and the destinies of one’s country was especially clearly manifested in the work of the Cuban poet José Martí. He was not only the greatest poet of Latin America, but also the leader of the liberation struggle against Spanish colonial rule. At the end of the 19th century. he was one of the first to speak about the danger of American imperialism for the peoples of Latin America.

Architecture and fine arts also underwent significant changes. During the colonial period, architecture was mainly religious in content. It was limited to church genres and followed European models. It was greatly influenced by the culture of the Spanish Renaissance, and later by the Baroque. At the beginning of the 19th century. interest in classicism increased. This manifested a desire to overcome colonial isolation and join world culture.

After achieving national independence, there was a decisive transition to secular art. There has been a rise in portraiture, interest in entertaining everyday scenes and landscape sketches. Artists increasingly turned to modern life and the history of the anti-colonial struggle.

A family of Guajiro peasants at the gates of a stud farm, the last third of the 19th century. W. P. de Landalusse (1825-1889). Cuban graphic artist and painter. Spanish by origin. Author of the series of paintings “Folk types and customs”

In connection with the growth of cities, new types of buildings appeared - stock exchanges, banks, department stores, hotels, railway stations, museums, theaters. Multi-storey buildings have sprung up in Buenos Aires. Concrete and iron began to be used in construction. As in the USA, at the end of the 19th century. Classicism was replaced by an eclectic style.

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Simon Bolivar went down in history as the great Liberator of Latin America. He was born on July 24, 1783, into the family of a Creole aristocrat. His ancestors settled in Venezuela back in the 16th century. He spent his youth in Spain, France, and Italy. He was influenced by the ideas of the American and French revolutions. In 1806 in Rome, on the Sacred Mountain, he took a solemn oath to devote his life to the liberation of his homeland from the “chains of Spanish slavery.” His name is associated with the formation of five independent states of South America - Bolivia, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador. During the 15 years of his heroic service, he took part in 472 battles. In 1813, the municipality of Caracas awarded him the title of Liberator. One of the Latin American countries - Bolivia - bears his name.

Simon Bolivar sought to implement the idea of ​​Latin American unity, to create a “sacred union of the peoples” of Latin America. He managed to form the state of “Greater Colombia”, which included Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. It existed from 1821 to 1830. But he was unable to implement the idea of ​​Latin American unity. The USA, Great Britain, as well as feuds, envy of recent friends, the struggle for power and slander of his enemies in the army interfered. After being accused of establishing a dictatorship, Simon Bolivar resigned. In his resignation letter, he wrote: “I am suspected of seeking to establish tyranny. But if the fate of the state depends on one person, then such a state has no right to exist and, in the end, will perish.”

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / World History of Modern Times XIX - early. XX century, 1998.

By the middle of the 19th century, most European countries had embarked on the path of capitalist development, with England still holding the lead among them. The United States continued to develop intensively, especially after the Civil War, in which the northerners defeated the rebellious southern states. The second half of the 19th century is also characterized by the completion of the process of creating national states in Europe, when the political fragmentation of Italy and Germany was eliminated.

The leadership of Europe and the United States in the economic and political spheres was finally determined. The unevenness of development was fully manifested in the 19th century. With regard to Asia, we can say that here the leadership of Europe was obviously determined by the peculiarities of social organization, in which people the very system of government, caste, social ranks, based on a person’s original belonging to one or another layer, did not give people the opportunity to fully manifest their individuality and talents. In Europe, since the Renaissance, the emphasis was on the individual, on the freedom of his activities. It is no coincidence that it was the European continent that produced so many discoverers, missionaries, inventors, conquerors, and industrialists who, in fact, carried out colonial expansion. It was during the Renaissance that the foundations were laid that fully manifested themselves by the end of the 19th century, when most of the globe submitted to the economic and political dictates of Europe. This was largely due to the incredible energy and entrepreneurial spirit of Europeans.

Foreign policy.

The Crimean War finally buried the Holy Alliance: Nicholas I, who essentially saved Austria in 1848 - 1849, found himself in such a difficult situation largely due to the hostile position of the Austrian emperor, who did not consider himself bound by either the obligations of the Holy Alliance or the sense of elementary gratitude. Nobility is finally disappearing from the field of foreign policy, where only cold calculation and self-interest begin to rule. And this is also a sign of capitalism; it is no coincidence that it was in the most developed capitalist country, England, that the saying was born that “Britain has no friends and no enemies, but only British interests.”

In the 50s - 60s of the 19th century, two new centralized states were formed in Europe: Italy and the German Empire. The unification of Italy is an interesting process, from a historical point of view, when the interests of the Sardinian government of King Victor Emmanuel, led by the moderate democrat Cavour, and such a staunch republican as Giuseppe Garibaldi coincided. Northern Italy was liberated as a result of the victory of Piedmontese troops in alliance with the French, led by Emperor Napoleon III, over the Austrians during the war of 1859. The south of Italy was liberated as a result of the landing of Garibaldi's rebel army in Sicily in 1860, after which he overthrew the power of King Francis II of Bourbon in a matter of months. The Kingdom of Naples also became part of Piedmont. In 1866 the Venetian and in 1870 the Papal States were annexed.

The unification of Germany, which failed through revolutionary means in 1848-1849, took place under the leadership of Prussia. The real political leader of Germany at this time was the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who believed that the country could only be united with “iron and blood.” The main instrument of unification, due to this conviction, was the Prussian and then the German army, led by Moltke the Elder. As a result of successive wars - 1864 with Denmark, 1866 with Austria, 1870 with France, all of these countries were opponents of a united Germany for one reason or another - in 1871 the German Empire was proclaimed. The education of German youth in the appropriate spirit played a huge role; It is no coincidence that Bismarck said that the Battle of Sedan (the decisive battle of the Franco-Prussian War) was won by a German schoolteacher. The elimination of the political fragmentation of Germany was undoubtedly a progressive event, but very soon, almost immediately after the victory over France and the abdication of Napoleon III, the government of the new state made it clear that its goals were by no means limited to this. The unity of Germany was perceived as the first stage in achieving hegemony in Europe and the world. France was presented with difficult peace conditions, according to which Alsace and Lorraine were torn away from her; German troops also intervened in the internal affairs of France, assisting the Versailles troops in suppressing the Paris Commune in 1871 - the first government that tried to establish socialist ideals. The German Empire immediately set a course for redividing the world, since it was late in dividing up the colonies. It must be said that the education of the German man in the street, and young people in particular, was built precisely in this spirit. Most Germans were sincerely convinced that Germany was the “deprived” side, that the Germans needed living space, which could be obtained in the colonies and in the East, which naturally meant Russia. But while German policy was led by Bismarck, a staunch opponent of war with Russia, Germany avoided aggravations with its eastern neighbor. But after the resignation of the old chancellor, in fact, direct preparations for war began. As a result, Europe found itself divided into two blocs: the Triple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria and Italy, and the Entente, uniting Russia and France, which was joined by Great Britain in 1907. Thus, a clash between the great powers was inevitable; this, in the end, predetermined the development of events that led to the First World War.

Formation of the colonial system. The countries of Europe, having carried out modernization, received enormous advantages compared to the rest of the world. Therefore, already in the XVII-XVIII centuries. The colonialist expansion to the East of the most developed countries of Europe began.

At the first stage of colonization, Spain and Portugal were in the lead. They managed to conquer most of South America. But already in the middle of the 18th century. Spain and Portugal began to fall behind economically and were relegated to the background as maritime powers. Leadership in colonial conquests passed to England. For almost a hundred years (starting from 1757), the English East India trading company captured almost the entire Hindustan. Since 1706, active colonization of North America began. At the same time, the development of Australia was going on. The Dutch East India Company took over Indonesia. France established colonial rule in the West Indies as well as Canada.

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Only the coast of Africa was explored by Europeans. In the 19th century Europeans advanced far into the continent, and by the middle of the 19th century. Africa was almost completely colonized. In Southeast Asia, the French captured almost all of Indochina. By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire became an area of ​​active penetration by Western powers. During the same period, Iran lost not only economic, but also political independence. By the end of the 19th century. its territory was divided into spheres of influence between England and Russia.

Thus, in the 19th century, almost all countries of the East fell into one form or another of dependence on the most powerful capitalist countries, turning into colonies or semi-colonies. For Western countries, colonies were a source of raw materials, financial resources, labor, as well as markets. The exploitation of the colonies by the metropolises was of a cruel and predatory nature. At the cost of merciless exploitation and robbery, the wealth of Western countries was created and the relatively high standard of living of their population was maintained.